7440-18-8

Basic information

• Product Name: Ruthenium
• Synonyms: Ruthenium-carbon catalyst;Ruthenium, powder 20 Mesh;5% Ruthenium-carbon catalyst;Ruthenium powder, -200 mesh, 99.99% trace metals basis excluding Ca;Ruthenium sponge, -20 mesh, 99.95% trace metals basis;Ruthenium cubes, 6mm square, 99.9% trace metals basis;Ruthenium powder, -325 mesh, 99.9% trace metals basis;Ruthenium, 5% on activated carbon
• CAS NO: 7440-18-8
• Molecular Formula: Ru
• Molecular Weight: 101.07
• EINECS: 231-127-1
• Product Categories: Ru;Inorganics;Catalysts for Organic Synthesis;Classes of Metal Compounds;Heterogeneous Catalysts;Ru (Ruthenium) Compounds;Synthetic Organic Chemistry;Transition Metal Compounds;AA Standard SolutionsSpectroscopy;AAS;Alphabetic;ChlorideAnalytical Standards;Matrix Selection;Reference/Calibration Standards;RSpectroscopy;Single Solution;Standard Solutions;Fuel Cell CatalystsCatalysis and Inorganic Chemistry;Alternative Energy;Materials Science;Ru Catalysts;Ruthenium;Metal and Ceramic Science;Metals;metal or element;supported metal catalyst;chemical reaction,pharm,electronic,materials
• Mol File: 7440-18-8.mol
• Article Data: 194

Chemical Properties

• Melting Point: 2310 °C(lit.)
• Boiling Point: 3900 °C(lit.)
• Flash Point: 134.3oC
• Appearance: Grayish-white/sponge
• Density: 1.025 g/mL at 25 °C
• Vapor Pressure: 0.0236mmHg at 25°C
• Refractive Index: 1.587
• Storage Temp.: Flammables area
• Water Solubility: insoluble
• Sensitive: Lachrymatory
• Stability: Stable. Powder is highly flammable.
• Merck: 14,8299
• CAS DataBase Reference: Ruthenium(CAS DataBase Reference)
• NIST Chemistry Reference: Ruthenium(7440-18-8)
• EPA Substance Registry System: Ruthenium(7440-18-8)

Safety Data

• Hazard Codes: F,C,Xn
• Statements: 20-37-11-34
• Safety Statements: 22-36-38-24/25-16-14-45-36/37/39-27-26-23
• RIDADR: UN 3178 4.1/PG 2
• WGK Germany: 3
• TSCA: Yes
• HazardClass: 4.1
• PackingGroup: III
• Hazardous Substances Data: 7440-18-8(Hazardous Substances Data)

Usage

Chemical Description

Ruthenium is a chemical element with the symbol Ru and atomic number 44.

History, Occurrence, and Uses

Ruthenium was recognized as a new element by G.W. Osann in 1828. He found it in insoluble residues from aqua regia extract of native platinum from alluvial deposits in the Ural mountains of Russia. He named it Ruthen after the Latin name Ruthenia for Russia. The discovery of this element, however, is credited to Klaus who in 1844 found that Osann’s ruthenium oxide was very impure and isolated pure Ru metal from crude platinum residues insoluble in aqua regia. Ruthenium occurs in nature natively, found in minor quantities associated with other platinum metals. Its abundance in the earth’s crust is estimated to be 0.001 mg/kg, comparable to that of rhodium and iridium. Ruthenium alloyed to platinum, palladium, titanium and molybdenum have many applications. It is an effective hardening element for platinum and palladium. Such alloys have high resistance to corrosion and oxidation and are used to make electrical contacts for resistance to severe wear. Ruthenium–palladium alloys are used in jewelry, decorations, and dental work. Addition of 0.1% ruthenium markedly improves corrosion resistance of titanium. Ruthenium alloys make tips for fountain pen nibs, instrument pivots, and electrical goods. Ruthenium catalysts are used in selective hydrogenation of carbonyl groups to convert aldehydes and ketones to alcohols.

Chemical Properties

Different sources of media describe the Chemical Properties of 7440-18-8 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Ruthenium is a hard, white-colored member of the PGE with a BP of 4150 °C (Lide, 2006). Like osmium, it can be used to create a hardened alloy with platinum or palladium. The addition of a small quantity of ruthenium to titanium makes an alloy with increased corrosion resistance (Lide, 2006). Ruthenium is also a versatile catalyst.
2. Ruthenium, a transition element, belongs to group VIII (iron) of the periodic classification and to the light platinum metals triad. It is a hard and brittle metal that resembles platinum. It crystallizes in hexagonal form and occurs in the form of seven stable isotopes: 96 (5.46%), 98 (1.87%), 99 (12.63%), 100 (12.53%), 101 (17.02%), 102 (31.6%), and 104 (18.87%). There are also several radioactive isotopes—93, 94, 95, 97, 103, 105, 106, 107, and 108—of which the 106 isotope characterized by strong β radiation and has a half-life of 368 days; since it is produced in large quantities in the nuclear reactors, it deserves special attention. Ruthenium is the rarest of the platinum group elements (abundance in the Earth’s crust ～0.0004 ppm). In chemical compounds, it occurs at oxidation states from +2 to +8; the most frequent is +3 in ruthenium compounds. Rutheniumis resistant to acids and aqua regia, it is not oxidized in the air at room temperature, and in the form of powder it reacts with oxygen at elevated temperatures. It is dissolved in molten strong alkalis and reacts with alkaline metal peroxides and perchlorides. Ruthenium powder reacts with chlorine above 200°C and with bromine at 300– 700°C. Ruthenium compounds are usually dark brown (ranging from yellow to black). Ruthenium forms alloys with platinum, palladium, cobalt, nickel, and tungsten.
3. Elemental ruthenium has a close-packed hexagonal crystal structure. The seven stable isotopes are 96Ru, 98Ru through 102Ru, and 104Ru.

Physical Properties

Hard silvery-white metal; hexagonal close-packed crystal structure; density 12.41 g/cm3 at 20°C; melts at 2,334°C; vaporizes at 4,150°C; electrical resistivity 7.1 microhm-cm at 0°C; hardness (annealed) 200-350 Vickers units; Young’s modulus 3.0×104 tons/in2; magnetic susceptibility 0.427 cm3/g; thermal neutron absorption cross section 2.6 barns; insoluble in water, cold or hot acids, and aqua regia; can be brought into aqueous phase by fusion of finely divided metal with alkaline hydroxides, peroxides, carbonates and cyanides.

Production

Ruthenium is derived from platinum metal ores. Method of production depends on the type of ore. However, the extraction processes are similar to those of other noble metals (see Platinum, Rhodium and Iridium). Ruthenium, like Rhodium, may be obtained from accumulated anode sludges in electrolytic refining of nickel or copper from certain types of ores. Also, residues from refining nickel by Mond carbonyl process contain ruthenium and other precious metals at very low concentrations. The extraction processes are very lengthy, involving smelting with suitable fluxes and acid treatments. Metals, such as gold, platinum, and palladium, are separated by digesting refining residues with aqua regia. These metals are soluble in aqua regia, leaving ruthenium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and silver in the insoluble residue. The treatment of this insoluble residue may vary. In one typical process, residue is subjected to fusion with sodium peroxide. Ruthenium and osmium are converted to water-soluble sodium ruthenate and osmate, which are leached with water. The aqueous solution is treated with chlorine gas and heated. The ruthenate and the osmate are converted to their tetroxides. Ruthenium tetroxide is distilled out and collected in hydrochloric acid. The tetroxide is converted into ruthenium chloride. Traces of osmium are removed from ruthenium chloride solution by boiling with nitric acid. Nitric acid converts osmium to volatile osmium tetroxide but forms a nitrosyl complex with ruthenium that remains in the solution. After removal of trace osmium, the solution is treated with ammonium chloride. This precipitates ruthenium as crystals of ammonium chlororuthenate, NH4RuCl6. The precipitate is washed, dried, and ignited to form ruthenium black. This is reduced with hydrogen at 1,000°C to form very pure ruthenium powder.

Reactions

When heated in air at 500 to 700°C, ruthenium converts to its dioxide, RuO2, a black crystalline solid of rutile structure. A trioxide of ruthenium, RuO3, also is known; formed when the metal is heated above 1,000°C. Above 1,100°C the metal loses weight because trioxide partially volatilizes. Ruthenium also forms a tetroxide, RuO4, which, unlike osmium, is not produced by direct union of the elements. Halogens react with the metal at elevated temperatures. Fluorine reacts with ruthenium at 300°C forming colorless vapors of pentafluoride, RuF5, which at ordinary temperatures converts to a green solid. Chlorine combines with the metal at 450°C to form black trichloride, RuCl3, which is insoluble in water. Ru metal at ambient temperature is attacked by chlorine water, bromine water, or alcoholic solution of iodine. Ruthenium is stable in practically all acids including aqua regia. Fusion with an alkali in the presence of an oxidizing agent forms ruthenate, RuO42– and perruthenate, RuO4ˉ. When finely-divided Ru metal is heated with carbon monoxide under 200 atm pressure, ruthenium converts to pentacarbonyl, Ru(CO)5, a colorless liquid that decomposes on heating to diruthenium nonacarbonyl, Ru2(CO)9, a yellow crystalline solid. Ruthenium reacts with cyclopentadiene in ether to form a sandwich complex, a yellow crystalline compound, bis(cyclopentadiene) ruthenium(0), also known as ruthenocene.

Physical properties

Ruthenium is a rare, hard, silvery-white metallic element located in group 8, just aboveosmium and below iron, with which it shares some chemical and physical properties.Both ruthenium and osmium are heavier and harder than pure iron, making them morebrittle and difficult to refine. Both ruthenium and osmium are less tractable and malleable than iron. Although there are some similar characteristics between ruthenium and iron,ruthenium’s properties are more like those of osmium. Even so, ruthenium is less stablethan osmium. They are both rare and difficult to separate from minerals and ores that containother elements. These factors make it more difficult to determine ruthenium’s accurateatomic weight.The oxidation state of +8 for ruthenium and its “mate” osmium is the highest oxidationstate of all elements in the transition series. Ruthenium’s melting point is 2,310°C, its boilingpoint is 3,900°C, and its density is 12.45 g/cm3.

Isotopes

There are 37 isotopes for ruthenium, ranging in atomic mass numbers from87 to 120. Seven of these are stable isotopes. The atomic masses and percentage ofcontribution to the natural occurrence of the element on Earth are as follows: Ru-96 =5.54%, Ru-98 = 1.87%, Ru-99 = 12.76%, Ru-100 = 12.60%, Ru-101 = 17.06%, Ru-102 = 31.55%, and Ru-104 = 18.62%.

Origin of Name

“Ruthenium” is derived from the Latin word Ruthenia meaning “Russia,” where it is found in the Ural Mountains.

Occurrence

Ruthenium is a rare element that makes up about 0.01 ppm in the Earth’s crust. Even so, itis considered the 74th most abundant element found on Earth. It is usually found in amountsup to 2% in platinum ores and is recovered when the ore is refined. It is difficult to separatefrom the leftover residue of refined platinum ore.Ruthenium is found in South America and the Ural Mountains of Russia. There are someminor platinum and ruthenium ores found in the western United States and Canada. All ofthe radioactive isotopes of ruthenium are produced in nuclear reactors.

Characteristics

Ruthenium also belongs to the platinum group, which includes six elements with similarchemical characteristics. They are located in the middle of the second and third series of thetransition elements. The platinum group consists of ruthenium, rhodium,palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum.Ruthenium is a hard brittle metal that resists corrosion from all acids but is vulnerable tostrong alkalis (bases). Small amounts, when alloyed with other metals, will prevent corrosionof that metal.

History

Berzelius and Osann in 1827 examined the residues left after dissolving crude platinum from the Ural mountains in aqua regia. While Berzelius found no unusual metals, Osann thought he found three new metals, one of which he named ruthenium. In 1844 Klaus, generally recognized as the discoverer, showed that Osann’s ruthenium oxide was very impure and that it contained a new metal. Klaus obtained 6 g of ruthenium from the portion of crude platinum that is insoluble in aqua regia. A member of the platinum group, ruthenium occurs native with other members of the group of ores found in the Ural mountains and in North and South America. It is also found along with other platinum metals in small but commercial quantities in pentlandite of the Sudbury, Ontario, nickel-mining region, and in pyroxinite deposits of South Africa. Natural ruthenium contains seven isotopes. Twenty-eight other isotopes and isomers are known, all of which are radioactive. The metal is isolated commercially by a complex chemical process, the final stage of which is the hydrogen reduction of ammonium ruthenium chloride, which yields a powder. The powder is consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques or by argon-arc welding. Ruthenium is a hard, white metal and has four crystal modifications. It does not tarnish at room temperatures, but oxidizes in air at about 800°C. The metal is not attacked by hot or cold acids or aqua regia, but when potassium chlorate is added to the solution, it oxidizes explosively. It is attacked by halogens, hydroxides, etc. Ruthenium can be plated by electrodeposition or by thermal decomposition methods. The metal is one of the most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium, and is alloyed with these metals to make electrical contacts for severe wear resistance. A ruthenium–molybdenum alloy is said to be superconductive at 10.6 K. The corrosion resistance of titanium is improved a hundredfold by addition of 0.1% ruthenium. It is a versatile catalyst. Hydrogen sulfide can be split catalytically by light using an aqueous suspension of CdS particles loaded with ruthenium dioxide. It is thought this may have application to removal of H2S in oil refining and other industrial processes. Compounds in at least eight oxidation states have been found, but of these, the +2. +3. and +4 states are the most common. Ruthenium tetroxide, like osmium tetroxide, is highly toxic. In addition, it may explode. Ruthenium compounds show a marked resemblance to those of osmium. The metal is priced at about $25/g (99.95% pure).

Uses

Different sources of media describe the Uses of 7440-18-8 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Since ruthenium is rare and difficult to isolate in pure form, there are few uses for it. Itsmain uses are as an alloy to produce noncorrosive steel and as an additive to jewelry metalssuch as platinum, palladium, and gold, making them more durable.It is also used as an alloy to make electrical contacts harder and wear longer, for medicalinstruments, and more recently, as an experimental metal for direct conversion of solar cellmaterial to electrical energy.Ruthenium is used as a catalyst to affect the speed of chemical reactions, but is not alteredby the chemical process. It is also used as a drug to treat eye diseases.
2. As substitute for platinum in jewelry; for pen nibs; as hardener in electrical contact alloys, electrical filaments; in ceramic colors; catalyst in synthesis of long chain hydrocarbons.
3. Ruthenium is used in wear-resistant electrical contacts and the production of thick-film resistors. Its use in some platinum alloys, and as a catalyst. It is a most effective hardeners for platinum and palladium. It is also used in some advanced high-temperature single-crystal super alloys, with applications including the turbine blades in jet engines and fountain pen nibs.

Definition

Different sources of media describe the Definition of 7440-18-8 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. A transition metal that occurs naturally with platinum. It forms alloys with platinum that are used in electrical contacts. Ruthenium is also used in jewelry alloyed with palladium.Symbol: Ru; m.p. 2310°C; b.p. 3900°C; r.d. 12.37 (20°C); p.n. 44; r.a.m. 101.07.
2. ruthenium: Symbol Ru. A hardwhite metallic transition element;a.n. 44; r.a.m. 101.07; r.d. 12.3; m.p.2310°C; b.p. 3900°C. It is found associatedwith platinum and is used as acatalyst and in certain platinum alloys.Chemically, it dissolves in fusedalkalis but is not attacked by acids. Itreacts with oxygen and halogens at high temperatures. It also formscomplexes with a range of oxidationstates. The element was isolated byK. K. Klaus in 1844.

Production Methods

Elemental ruthenium occurs in native alloys of iridium and osmium (irridosmine, siskerite) and in sulfide and other ores (pentlandite, laurite, etc.) in very small quantities that are commercially recovered. The element is separated from the other platinum metals by a sequence involving treatment with aqua regia (separation of insoluble osmium, rhodium, ruthenium, and iridium), fusion with sodium bisulfate (with which rhodium reacts), and fusion with sodium peroxide (dissolution of osmium and ruthenium). The resulting solution of ruthenate and osmate is treated with ethanol to precipitate ruthenium dioxide. The ruthenium dioxide is purified by treatment with hydrochloric acid and chlorine and reduced with hydrogen gas to pure metal. Ruthenium is recovered from exhausted catalytic converters or, in a similar manner, from the waste produced during platinum and nickel ore processing.

General Description

This product has been enhanced for energy efficiency.

Hazard

The main hazard is the explosiveness of ruthenium fine power or dust. The metal willrapidly oxidize (explode) when exposed to oxidizer-type chemicals such as potassium chlorideat room temperature. Most of its few compounds are toxic and their fumes should beavoided.

Flammability and Explosibility

Notclassified

Pharmaceutical Applications

Ruthenium is the chemical element with the symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It occurs as a minor side product in the mining of platinum. Ruthenium is relatively inert to most chemicals. Its main applications are in the area of specialised electrical parts. The success of cisplatin, together with the occurrence of dose-limiting resistances and severe side effects such as nausea and nephrotoxicity, encouraged the research into other metal-based anticancer agents. Ruthenium is one of those metals under intense research, and first results look very promising, with two candidates – NAMI-A and KP1019 – having entered clinical trials.

Safety Profile

Most ruthenium compounds are poisons. Ruthenium is retained in the bones for a long time. Flammable in the form of dust when exposed to heat or flame. Violent reaction with ruthenium oxide. Explosive reaction with aqua rega + potassium chlorate. When heated to decomposition it emits very toxic fumes of RuO, and Ru, which are hghly injurious to the eyes and lung and can produce nasal ulcerations. See also RUTHENIUM COMPOUNDS.

InChI:InChI=1/C11H9ClN2/c12-8-9-2-4-10(5-3-9)11-13-6-1-7-14-11/h1-7H,8H2

Synthetic route

tris(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(II) chloride (15529-49-4, 41756-81-4) → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With 1-decene; 1,1,3,3-tetramethyldisiloxane In toluene mixt. of tetramethyldixiloxane, 1-decene and Ru-complex in unhyd. toluene stirred at room temp., evacuated, refilled with N2 three times, stirred at 100°C for 5 d; centrifuged, decanted, washed by toluene, centrifuged twice, dried indervac.; detd. by XRD, TEM;	90%

(η(6)-toluene)RuCl(C10H6CH(Me)NMe2) (240404-90-4, 240494-16-0) + sodium bromide (7647-15-6) → (η(6)-toluene)RuBr(C10H6CH(Me)NMe2) (240404-91-5, 240494-18-2) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
In ethanol; dichloromethane byproducts: NaCl; stirring for 6 h at room temp.; evapn., dissoln. (CH2Cl2), chromy. (Al2O3, hexane:ether 1:1, CH2Cl2), evapn., washing (hexane:ether), collection (filtration), drying (vac.); elem. anal.;	A 75% B n/a

ruthenium(II) chloride + triethylsilane (617-86-7) → triethylsilyl chloride (994-30-9) + hydrogen (1333-74-0) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
In not given react. with boiling (C2H5)3SiH after 12 min;;	A 74% B n/a C n/a
In not given react. with boiling (C2H5)3SiH after 12 min;;	A 74% B n/a C n/a

bis[dichlorido(η6-toluene)ruthenium(II)] (52462-27-8) + (R)C-[Hg(C10H6CH(Me)NMe2)Cl] → (η(6)-toluene)RuCl(C10H6CH(Me)NMe2) (240404-90-4, 240494-16-0) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
In acetonitrile byproducts: HgCl2; N2-atmosphere; equimolar amts., stirring for 15 h at room temp.; evapn., dissoln. (CH2Cl2), chromy. (Al2O3, hexane:ether 1:1, CH2Cl2), evapn., washing (hexane:ether), collection (filtration), drying (vac.); elem. anal.;	A 60% B n/a

ruthenium(C)(CO)15 → carbido heptadecacarbonyl hexaruthenium + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
In n-heptane High Pressure; soln. or Ru complex in heptane heated at 200°C under 10 atm Ar for 4 h; filtered, filtrate evapd. (Ru6C(CO)17); ppt. extd. with acetone leaving Ru;	A 59% B 20%

dihydridotetrakis(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium (27599-25-3, 54083-06-6, 19529-00-1) + butyraldehyde (123-72-8) → tricarbonylbis(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(0) (20332-49-4, 14741-36-7) + propene (187737-37-7) + butyl butyrate (109-21-7) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) + butan-1-ol (71-36-3)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) byproducts: H2, propane, CO; educts mixed at 0°C in vac., stirred in ice-bath for 2 h; evapd. in vac., solid washed with Et2O and hexane, dissolved in toluene, filtered, concd. in vac., ppt. filtered, washed with hexane, dried in vac.;	A 56% B n/a C n/a D n/a E <1

C44H40ClN12Ru2 → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: C44H40ClN12Ru2 at 258 - 366℃; Stage #2: at 1000℃;	20%

dodecacarbonyl-triangulo-triruthenium (15243-33-1) + red selenium (12597-33-0) → Ru4(CO)12(μ3-Se)4 (367927-33-1) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
In xylene Se8 dissolved in xylene under reflux at 140°C, addn. of Ru3(CO)12, mixt. brought to ambient temp., soln. poured in an ampoule, ampoule sealed and placed in autoclave, autoclave vessel filled to 80 vol-% with water, heated at 250°C for 30 d; product sepd. using PTFE filter, washed with small portions of diethyl ether;	A 5% B n/a

ruthenium(III) chloride (10049-08-8) + rubidium chloride + chlorine (7782-50-5) → rubidium hexachlororuthenate(III) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
fusion (Cl2 atmosphere, quartz ampoule), slow cooling; elem. anal.;	A n/a B 1%

ruthenium(III) chloride (10049-08-8) + cesium chloride + chlorine (7782-50-5) → caesium hexachlororuthenate(III) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
fusion (Cl2 atmosphere, quartz ampoule), slow cooling; elem. anal.;	A n/a B 1%

tricarbonyl(η(4)-1,5-cyclooctadiene)ruthenium (32874-17-2) → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 170 - 350℃; under 0.60006 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5 - 1.66667h; Product distribution / selectivity;

bis(η5-(trimethylsilyl)cyclopentadienyl)ruthenium(II) → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 170 - 350℃; under 9.9985 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

(trimethylsilyl)ruthenocene → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 170 - 350℃; under 9.9985 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

Ru(CO)3(η(4)-2,3-dimethylbutadiene) (52649-53-3) → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 180 - 350℃; under 0.975098 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

1.3-butadiene Ru(CO)3 (62883-45-8) → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 120 - 350℃; under 0.975098 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

bis(trifluoromethylcyclopentadienyl)ruthenium → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 300 - 400℃; under 50.255 - 759.826 Torr; for 1h; Product distribution / selectivity;

bis(fluorocyclopentadienyl)ruthenium → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 200 - 400℃; under 9.75098 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

ruthenium trifluoroacetate → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 250 - 500℃; under 9.75098 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

ruthenium 2-ethylhexanoate → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 300 - 500℃; under 9.75098 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

cyclopentadienyl ruthenium tetrahydride → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 150 - 400℃; under 4.87549 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadienyl ruthenium tetrahydride → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen at 150 - 400℃; under 4.87549 - 759.826 Torr; for 1.5h; Product distribution / selectivity;

Ru(DMPD)-THF → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With ammonia Heating / reflux;

ruthenium trichloride hydrate → hydrogenchloride (7647-01-0) + water (7732-18-5) + oxygen (80937-33-3) + chlorine (7782-50-5) + ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen In neat (no solvent) thermal decomposition in Ar - O2 mixture; TG-DTG-DTA-MS;
In neat (no solvent) thermal decomposition in Ar; TG-DTG-DTA-MS;

ruthenium trichloride hydrate → ruthenium (7440-18-8)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen 101 kPa and between 473 K and 623 K for 2 h;
With hydrogen; sodium hydrogencarbonate; pyrographite In water activated carbon added to 0.01 M aq. soln. of RuCl3*xH2O (stirring, 60°C); pH adjusted to 6-7 with aq. soln. of NaHCO3; kept (2 h);solid filtered; dried (room temp.); treated with H2 (120°C, 1 h);
In ethylene glycol heated to 453 K; cooled down rapidly; TEM; XRD;

sodium peroxide + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → sodium perruthenate

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) reaction at red heat;;	100%

yttrium + Y3Ru + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Y6I10Ru

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) welded and SiO2-jacketed Nb container, 950°C for 22 d;	100%
In neat (no solvent) welded and SiO2-jacketed Nb container, 1000°C for 6 d, annealed at 900°C for 1 d;	80%

lanthanum (7439-91-0) + lanthanum(III) iodide (13813-22-4) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → La3I3Ru

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) La/LaI3/Ru in a 2/1/1 mole ratio in Nb tube heated to 900°C for 7wk;	99%

praseodymium + praseodymium triiodide (13813-23-5) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Pr4I5Ru

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) byproducts: PrOI, Pr7I12Ru, PrI6Ru2; in welded Nb-container at 950-975°C (26-30 d);	95%

ruthenium on charcoal + 4-hydroxyimino-6-phenyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrrolo[3,2,1-jk][1,4]benzodiazepin-3-one + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → 4-amino-6-phenyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrrolo [3,2,1-jk] [1,4]benzodiazepin-3-one

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen In dichloromethane	94%

(1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene)dichloropalladium + 2-(4-bromophenyl)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-nitrophenyl)pyrrolidine (1258232-99-3) + bis(pinacol)diborane (73183-34-3) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → 1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenyl)pyrrolidine (1258233-00-9)

Conditions	Yield
With nitrogen; potassium acetate In 1,4-dioxane; hexane; ethyl acetate	94%

boron + titanium (7440-32-6) + iron (7439-89-6) + iridium + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Ti2FeRu2.6Ir2.4B2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; arc melting in water-cooled Cu crucible under Ar using W tip as second electrode; powders pressed into pellet, arc melted for 20 s using direct current of 40 A under Ar; remelted several times;	92%

praseodymium + praseodymium(III) bromide (13536-53-3) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Pr3Br3Ru

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) inert atmosphere; Nb container, stoich. amts., 900°C, 3-4 weeks; powder X-ray diffraction;	90%

erbium + erbium monotelluride + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Er17Ru6Te3

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; ErTe, Er, Ru in 17:6:3 pressed into pellets; arc-melted at 30 A for 30 s/side in Ar filled glove box; wrapped in Mo foil; loaded into Ta tube; sealed; evacuated for 1 d under high vac. (E-7 Torr); sintered at 1250°C for 2 wks; cooled to 700 ...;	90%
In melt Electric Arc; ErTe, Er, Ru in 7:2:2 pressed into pellets; arc-melted at 30 A for 30 s/side in Ar filled glove box; wrapped in Mo foil; loaded into Ta tube; sealed; evacuated for 1 d under high vac. (E-7 Torr); sintered at 1250°C for 2 wks; cooled to 700 ...;	60%

6-t-butyl-2-ethyl-1,4-dioxaspiro[4.5]decane + 2-tert-butylcyclohexanone (1728-46-7) + palladium (7440-05-3) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) + 1,2-dihydroxybutane (584-03-2) → 1-(2-tert-butyl-cyclohexyloxy)-2-butanol

Conditions	Yield
	89%

sodium chlorate + triphenylphosphine (603-35-0) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → tris(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(II) chloride (15529-49-4, 41756-81-4)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: sodium chlorate; ruthenium With sodium hydroxide for 0.25h; Inert atmosphere; Schlenk technique; Stage #2: triphenylphosphine for 3h; Reflux; Inert atmosphere; Schlenk technique;	89%

2-Methyl-1-phenyl-2-propanol (100-86-7) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → 2-cyclohexyl-1,1-dimethyl ethanol (5531-30-6)

Conditions	Yield
	88%

boron + titanium (7440-32-6) + iron (7439-89-6) + iridium + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Ti2FeRu2.3Ir2.7B2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; arc melting in water-cooled Cu crucible under Ar using W tip as second electrode; powders pressed into pellet, arc melted for 20 s using direct current of 40 A under Ar; remelted several times;	87%

boron + titanium (7440-32-6) + iron (7439-89-6) + iridium + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Ti2FeRu2.8Ir2.2B2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; arc melting in water-cooled Cu crucible under Ar using W tip as second electrode; powders pressed into pellet, arc melted for 20 s using direct current of 40 A under Ar; remelted several times;	86%

boron + titanium (7440-32-6) + iron (7439-89-6) + iridium + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Ti2FeRu3.8Ir1.2B2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; arc melting in water-cooled Cu crucible under Ar using W tip as second electrode; powders pressed into pellet, arc melted for 20 s using direct current of 40 A under Ar; remelted several times;	85%

5-ethoxy-2,5-dihydrofuran-2-one (2833-30-9) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → 4-bromo-5-ethoxyfuran-2(5H)-one (32978-38-4)

Conditions	Yield
With bromine In tetrachloromethane	82%

dysprosium + dysprosium telluride + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Dy6RuTe2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; (N2 or He); mixt. of Dy, DyTe, Ru pelletized in Dy20Ru6Te3 compn.; arc melted for 20-30 s per side; crushed into pieces and ground into powder; annealed at 935°C for 4 wk; detn. by XRD;	80%

dysprosium + dysprosium telluride + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Dy17Ru6Te3

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; (N2 or He); mixt. of Dy, DyTe, Ru pelletized in Dy20Ru6Te3 compn.; arc melted for 20-30 s per side; crushed into pieces and ground into powder; annealed at 1000°C for 9 d; quenched; detn. by XRD;	80%

erbium + erbium monotelluride + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Er6RuTe2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; (N2 or He); mixt. of Er, ErTe, Ru pelletized in Er20Ru6Te3 compn.; arc melted for 20-30 s per side; crushed into pieces and ground into powder; annealed at 935°C for 4 wk; detn. by XRD;	80%

boron + titanium (7440-32-6) + iron (7439-89-6) + iridium + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Ti2FeRu1.2Ir3.8B2

Conditions	Yield
In melt Electric Arc; arc melting in water-cooled Cu crucible under Ar using W tip as second electrode; powders pressed into pellet, arc melted for 20 s using direct current of 40 A under Ar; remelted several times;	79%

selenium (7782-49-2) + potassium selenide + 2,3,5,6,7-pentaselena-1,4-dophosphabicyclo{2.2.1}heptane (133323-68-9) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → K5RuP5Se10

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) molar ratio Ru:P2Se:K2Se:Se=1.5:4.5:2.25:1.5, evacuated glass tube, 490°C, 10d; then cooling to 50°C at 2°C/h; washing (N2-atmosphere; DMF, then Bu3P, then ether);	75%

5-benzyloxy-5H-furan-2-one (187999-92-4) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → azidolactone + 4-azido-5-benzyloxy-dihydrofuran-2-one

Conditions	Yield
	A 72% B n/a

oxalyl dichloride (79-37-8) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) + trimethylphosphane (594-09-2) → RuCl2(CO)(Me3P)3 (82847-38-9, 117141-93-2, 99096-01-2)

Conditions	Yield
In tetrahydrofuran co-condensation of Ru with excess of oxalyl chloride, extd. with THF, solvent removed, extd. with THF, toluene added, PMe3 added to solid;	70%

thulium + thulium monotelluride + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → Tm6RuTe2

Conditions	Yield
(N2 or He); mixt. of Tm, TmTe, Ru pelletized in Tm10Ru2Te3 compn.; reacted at 1125°C for 2 wk; detn. by XRD;	70%

ruthenium(III)chloride (10049-08-8) + cyclopenta-1,3-diene (542-92-7) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → bis(η5-cyclopentadienyl)ruthenium (1287-13-4)

Conditions	Yield
With Na; In 1,2-dimethoxyethane; water from reaction of 7.2 g Na and 31 ml C5H6 in 300 ml 1,2-dimethoxyethane and subsequent addition of 14.6 g RuCl3 and 2.4 Ru under N2-atmoesphere; heating narrow to reflux for 4 h, addition of H2O;; triple extraction with benzene; filtration of the benzene-residue over a short Al2O3-column and sublimation at 80-100°C (0.1 Torr);;	68%
With Na; In 1,2-dimethoxyethane; water from reaction of 7.2 g Na and 31 ml C5H6 in 300 ml 1,2-dimethoxyethane and subsequent addition of 14.6 g RuCl3 and 2.4 Ru under N2-atmoesphere; heating narrow to reflux for 4 h, addition of H2O;; triple extraction with benzene; filtration of the benzene-residue over a short Al2O3-column and sublimation at 80-100°C (0.1 Torr);;	68%
With Na; In 1,2-dimethoxyethane from reaction of 7.2 g Na and 31 ml C5H6 in 300 ml 1,2-dimethoxyethane and subsequent addition of 14.6 g RuCl3 and 2.4 Ru under N2-atmoesphere; heating narrow to reflux for 80 h;; evapn. of the solvent (water jet vacuum), sublimation of the dry residue at 120-130°C in vacuum (N2-atmosphere); chromy. of the air-stable sublimate over Al2O3 (benzene), evapn. of the solvent and resublimation of the residue;;	56-69
With Na; In 1,2-dimethoxyethane from reaction of 7.2 g Na and 31 ml C5H6 in 300 ml 1,2-dimethoxyethane and subsequent addition of 14.6 g RuCl3 and 2.4 Ru under N2-atmoesphere; heating narrow to reflux for 80 h;; evapn. of the solvent (water jet vacuum), sublimation of the dry residue at 120-130°C in vacuum (N2-atmosphere); chromy. of the air-stable sublimate over Al2O3 (benzene), evapn. of the solvent and resublimation of the residue;;	56-69

(1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene)dichloropalladium + 2-(4-bromophenyl)-1-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-5-(4-nitrophenyl)pyrrolidine (1258233-05-4) + bis(pinacol)diborane (73183-34-3) + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → 1-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-2-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)phenyl)pyrrolidine (1258233-06-5)

Conditions	Yield
With potassium acetate In 1,4-dioxane	68%

ammonium carbamate + Glauber's salt + ruthenium (7440-18-8) → 2NH4(1+)*(Ru(H2O)6)(2+)*2SO4(2-)=(NH4)2(Ru(H2O)6)(SO4)2

Conditions

Yield

With Na2O2; NaIO4; amalgamated lead In melt byproducts: O2; Ru was heated with Na2O2 to redness and stirred for 1 min; cooling, the residue was dissolved in H2O and the mixt. was allowed to react with NaIO4 in H2SO4, Pb in H2SiF6, Na2SO4*10H2O (under CO2); the soln. was dild. with H2O and loaded onto a column (DOWEX 50W-X8), elution with aq. H2SO4; then NH4NH2CO2 was added and the soln. was evapd. at 35°C under vacuum; the ppt. was filtered off, washed with satd. (NH4)2SO4 soln., EtOH; air drying;;

63%

Upstream product

• 14898-67-0 ruthenium trichloride hydrate 
• 1333-74-0 hydrogen 
• 14898-67-0 ruthenium(III) chloride trihydrate 
• 15243-33-1 dodecacarbonyl-triangulo-triruthenium 
• 10049-08-8 ruthenium(III)chloride 
• 7429-90-5 aluminium 
• 371193-63-4 cyclopentadienyl-propyl-cyclopentadienylruthenium(II) 
• 14282-91-8 hexammine ruthenium(III) chloride 
• 20427-56-9 ruthenium tetroxide 
• 7664-41-7 ammonia 
• 15529-49-4 tris(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(II) chloride 
• 10049-08-8 ruthenium(III) chloride 
• 949113-49-9 bis(N,N'-di-tert-butylacetamidinato)ruthenium(II) dicarbonyl 

Downstream Products

• 32978-38-4 4-bromo-5-ethoxyfuran-2(5H)-one 
• 1589-49-7 methoxypropanol 
• 5531-30-6 2-cyclohexyl-1,1-dimethyl ethanol 
• 534-73-6 isomaltitol 
• 164336-12-3 3-amino-2,3-dihydro-5-phenyl-1H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one-1-acetic acid 
• 57477-82-4 2-aminomethyl-4-tertbutyl-6-trifluoromethylphenol hydrochloride 
• 5932-68-3 (E)-2-methoxy-4-(1-propenyl)phenol 
• 10049-08-8 ruthenium(III)chloride 
• 20427-56-9 ruthenium tetroxide 
• 14521-18-7 ruthenium(V) fluoride 
• 13465-52-6 ruthenium(IV) chloride 
• 10049-08-8 ruthenium trichloride 
• 7440-21-3 silicon 
• 13896-65-6 ruthenium(III) iodide 

Relevant articles and documents

REACTION OF Ru3(CO)12 WITH STYRENE

The reaction of styrene with Ru3(CO)12 yields the known complex Ru4(CO)12(PhC=CH) and the new cluster Ru4(CO)9(PhC=CH)(PhEt), in which a second molecule of styrene is hydrogenated and η6-bonded.

PHOTODEPOSITION OF Ru ON InP AND GaInPAs. CATALYTIC AND ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES.

The authors restrict this investigation to Ru/InP and Ru/GaInPAs contacts. The large grain polycrystalline quaternary semiconductor has been chosen because of differences in surface chemistry. Experimental data show that the typical current enhancement upon metallization is found. The increase in catalytic activity is larger for InP. A somewhat lower overall photoactivity is noted for GaInPAs.

Electrically benign Ru wet etching method for fabricating Ru/TiO 2 /Ru capacitor

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Thermodynamic calculations and metallorganic chemical vapor deposition of ruthenium thin films using bis(ethyl-π-cyclopentadienyl)Ru for memory applications

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Sol-gel synthesis of hydrous ruthenium oxide nanonetworks from 1,2-epoxides

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PEALD of a ruthenium adhesion layer for copper interconnects

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CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION OF RUTHENIUM AND RUTHENIUM DIOXIDE FILMS.

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Regulative Electronic States around Ruthenium/Ruthenium Disulphide Heterointerfaces for Efficient Water Splitting in Acidic Media

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Spectroscopic and thermal studies of chromium(III), molybdenum(VI) and ruthenium(0) complexes of maleic hydrazide

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Thermal decomposition kinetics of some metal complexes of N,N-diethyl-N'-benzoylthiourea

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Electrochemical characterization of platinum-ruthenium nanoparticles prepared by water-in-oil microemulsion

The synthesis, physical characterization, decontamination and some electrocatalytic properties of PtRu nanoparticles prepared using the microemulsion method are reported. The nanoparticles are synthesized by reduction with sodium borohydride of H2PtCl6 and RuCl 3 in a water-in-oil microemulsion of water/polyethylenglycol- dodecylether (BRIJ 30)/n-heptane. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive analysis by X-rays (EDAX) experiments were carried out to characterize the single and bimetallic nanoparticles obtained. Cyclic voltammograms (CV) of clean nanoparticles were obtained after a controlled decontamination procedure of their surfaces. CO adsorption-oxidation and methanol electrooxidation were used as test reactions to check the electrocatalytic behaviour of the bimetallic nanoparticles. Pt 80Ru20 (nominal atomic composition) nanoparticles are the best electrocatalyst for both COad and methanol oxidation. All these results show that the microemulsion method can be used to produce bimetallic nanoparticles in a very easy way. The method can be very easily scaled-up for industrial use.

Thermodynamic stability of CaRuO3

The e.m.f. of the galvanic cell Pt, CaO, CaRuO3, Ru|15 CSZ|O2 (PO(2) = 0.21 atm), Pt was studied over the range 971-1312 K using 15wt.%CaO-stabilized ZrO2 (15 CSZ) as the solid electrolyte. This study yielded th

Ruthenium Bottom Electrode Prepared by Electroplating for a High Density DRAM Capacitor

The possibility of Ru electroplating for application as the bottom electrode in high density dynamic random access memory (DRAM) capacitors was investigated. Prior to Ru electroplating on a TiN substrate, HF cleaning and Pd activation were performed. Removal of Ti oxide from the TiN substrate by HF treatment enabled Pd activation, which enhanced the nucleation of Ru on TiN substrate. Optimized pretreatments led to a continuous Ru film deposition. The surface roughness was measured to be 4.4 nm at 45 nm Ru film on the bare substrate. Moreover Ru electroplating method was also applied to a capacitor node-type TiN wafer. The deposition rate of Ru on the patterned wafer was the same as that on a bare wafer. The film showed 93% step coverage and good adhesion, comparable to CVD Ru films.

Atomic Layer Deposition of Ruthenium Thin Films for Copper Glue Layer

Ruthenium thin films were produced by atomic layer deposition (ALD) using an alternating supply of bis(ethylcyclopentadienyl)ruthenium [Ru(EtCp) 2] and oxygen at a deposition temperature of 270°C. The relative ratio of the Ru(EtCp)2 adsorbed on the film surface to the oxygen partial pressure in the following oxygen pulse determines whether Ru or RuO 2 film was obtained. At the range with higher relative ratio the film was composed of ruthenium, but the film deposited at the lower range was revealed to be ruthenium oxide. In case of the ruthenium thin film, the film thickness per cycle was saturated at 0.15 nm/cycle, and its resistivity was about 15 μω cm. The impurities of carbon and oxygen were incorporated into the film with less than 2 atom %. It was also demonstrated that the ruthenium thin films prepared by ALD can be used as an excellent glue layer to improve the interfacial adhesion of metallorganic chemical vapor deposited copper to TiN. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy analysis showed that the ruthenium glue layer suppressed the interfacial contaminants, such as carbon and fluorine, which originated from the metallorganic precursors of copper.

Electrochemical preparation of photosensitive porous n-type Si electrodes, modified with Pt and Ru nanoparticles

A novel electrochemical procedure for preparation of the very stable, thin modifying layer onto the n-type Si surface was elaborated. The modification consisted of platinum or/and ruthenium ultrafine particles etched into the porous Si film. A unique sequence of modifications was applied: at first the metal particles were evenly electrodeposited onto a flat silicon surface, and in the next electrochemical step the porous structure was produced. The platinum coverage and mean particle diameter were well controlled by the electrochemical programs. All the attempts and progress in modifications were monitored by scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations. Furthermore, the materials obtained were compared with the non-porous, Pt or/and Ru modified electrodes by testing them as anodes in the photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell with organic Br2/2Br- solution. In general, the porous photo-anodes gave higher output powers and the light-to-electricity conversion efficiencies. The best performance was observed for the PEC cell employing the porous anode with sequentially electrodeposited Ru and Pt particles, respectively (PS-Si/Ru/Pt).11 PS-Si means the porous silicon film; Si/Pt/Ru describes the sequence of metal depositions onto Si, in this case the Pt deposition is followed by the Ru deposition. This cell maintained good electrical parameter values during the 2-week tests, having a maximum output power equal to 0.23 mW/cm2 and a cell conversion efficiency of 8.5%. The PS-Si/Pt photo-anode gained 0.21 mW/cm2 and 7.8%, respectively.

Calcium ruthenates: Determination of Gibbs energies of formation using electrochemical cells

Metallic Ru has been found to coexist separately with CaO, RuO2, and the interoxide phases, Ca2RuO4, Ca3Ru2O7, and CaRuO3, present along the pseudobinary system CaO-RuO2. The standard Gibbs energies of formation (Δf(ox)G°) of the three calcium ruthenates from their component oxides have been measured in the temperature range 925-1350 K using solid-state cells with yttria-stabilized zirconia as the electrolyte and Ru + RuO2 as the reference electrode. The standard Gibbs energies of formation (Δf(ox)G°) of the compounds can be represented by Ca2RuO4: Δf(ox)G°/J mol-1 = -38,340 - 6.611 T (±120), Ca3Ru2O7: Δf(ox)G°/J mol-1 = 75,910 - 11.26 T (±180), and CaRuO3: Δf(ox)G°/J mol-1 = -35,480-3,844 T (±70). The data for Ca2RuO4 corresponds to the stoichiometric composition, which has an orthorhombic structure, space group Pbca, with short c axis ( S form). The structural features of the ternary oxides responsible for their mild entropy stabilization are discussed. A three-dimensional oxygen potential diagram for the system Ca-Ru-O is developed as a function of composition and temperature from the results obtained. Using the Neumann-Kopp rule to estimate the heat capacity of the ternary oxides relative to their constituent binary oxides, the standard enthalpies of formation of the three calcium ruthenates from the elements and their standard entropies at 298.15 K are evaluated.

Structure and reactivity of Ru nanoparticles supported on modified graphite surfaces: A study of the model catalysts for ammonia synthesis

Supported ruthenium metal catalysts have higher activity than traditional iron-based catalysts used industrially for ammonia synthesis. A study of a model Ru/C catalyst was carried out to advance the understanding of structure and reactivity correlations in this structure-sensitive reaction where dinitrogen dissociation is the rate-limiting step. Ru particles were grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) via a Ru3(CO)12 precursor on a highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) surface modified with one-atomic-layer-deep holes mimicking activated carbon support. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) has been used to investigate the growth, structure, and morphology of the Ru particles. Thermal desorption of dissociatively adsorbed nitrogen has been used to evaluate the reactivity of the Ru/HOPG model catalysts. Two different Ru particle structures with different reactivities to N2 dissociation have been identified. The initial sticking coefficient for N2 dissociative adsorption on the Ru/HOPG model catalysts is ～10-6, 4 orders larger compared to that of Ru single-crystal surfaces.

Thermal stability of RuSr2GdCu2O8, Ru 1 - xSr2GdCu2O8 - y, RuO2

Thermal stability of RuSr2GdCu2O8, Ru 0.9Sr2GdCu2O8-y, and RuO2 powders in oxygen has been studied by thermogravimetry. Decomposition of RuSr2GdCu2O8 and Ru0.9Sr 2GdCu2O8-y samples in 0.85 bar of oxygen appears as a solid phase process at ～1050 °C. This is followed by peritectic decomposition with onset starting at ～1110 °C for the stoichiometric sample and at ～1090 °C for the Ru deficient one. We observed that sublimation of ruthenium oxide in 0.85 bar of oxygen starts at ～850 °C and sample's humidity significantly increases a sublimation rate. Enhanced sublimation above 1060 °C was observed for powder mixtures (RuO2+xCuO), x=0.1, 0.2, 0.5. Analysis of the sublimation process of these mixtures suggests existence of an unknown compound in Ru-Cu-O system with approximate composition Ru1-xCuxO2-y, xa synthetic route of rutenates and, in particular RuSr 2GdCu2O8 phase, eliminating Ru off-stoichiometry and phase separation, are discussed.

In situ Ru K-edge EXAFS of CO adsorption on a Ru modified Pt/C fuel cell catalyst

The Ru-CO bond of CO adsorbed on a Ru modified Pt/C fuel cell catalyst has been directly probed by in situ EXAFS at the Ru K-edge, providing evidence of a CO:metal surface atom ratio greater than 1:1 and that CO is adsorbed at bridging sites associated wi

Anodically formed oxide films and oxygen reduction on electrodeposited ruthenium in acid solution

The impedance of the anodically formed hydrous Ru oxide in the system Ru|oxide film|1 M HClO4 solution has been studied in the range of potentials where the electrode process occurs by a double electron and proton exchange between the oxide film and the solution. The results allowed us to clearly distinguish between the surface process at higher frequency and the bulk process at lower frequency. The high-frequency charging is found to be coupled to Faradaic charging at the film/solution interface. Evaluation of the impedance data at lower frequency, using diffusion equations for the finite boundary conditions, yields an effective proton diffusion coefficient to be 10 -10 to 10-11 cm2 s-1. Oxygen reduction on the spontaneously oxidized ruthenium electrode was discussed on the basis of a rotating ring-disk voltammetry.

Direct regeneration of NADH on a ruthenium modified glassy carbon electrode

The regeneration of NADH in a batch electrochemical reactor using a ruthenium modified glassy carbon electrode (RuGC) has been investigated. The information on the structure of the electrode/electrolyte interface in the presence of NAD+ in the solution, the kinetics of NAD+ reduction, and the batch-electrolysis NADH regeneration has been obtained using electrochemical techniques of dc linear potential (LP) and constant potential (CA) polarization, ac differential capacitance (DC), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). It has been shown that the modification of GC by a sub-monolayer of Ru can provide an electrode surface capable of reducing NAD+ directly to NADH at a high yield of enzymatically active 1,4-NADH (96%). From the electrochemical point of view, the reaction is irreversible and occurs at high cathodic overpotentials, where the reaction rate is controlled by the surface diffusion of electroactive species. EIS measurements have shown that the electrode/electrolyte interface and the corresponding charge- and mass-transfer processes can be described by an electrical equivalent circuit composed of two time constants in parallel, with the additional contribution of a mass-transport Warburg impedance element. The time constant recorded at higher frequencies represents the response of a GC part of the electrode surface, while the lower-frequency time constant can be related to the response of Ru sites on the electrode surface. It has been determined that the NAD+ reduction reaction is of first order with respect to NAD+. The calculated apparent heterogeneous reaction rate constant values are rather low, which is due to the slow mass-transport of electroactive species at the electrode surface. The kinetic analysis has demonstrated that a very good agreement between the apparent heterogeneous reaction rate constant values calculated using three different experimental techniques is obtained.

Formation of Ru nanocrystals by plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition for nonvolatile memory applications

The formation of Ru nanocrystals is demonstrated on a SiO2 substrate by plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition using diethylcyclopentadienyl ruthenium and NH3 plasma. The island growth of Ru was observed at the initial stages of the film formation up to a nominal thickness of 11.1 nm. A maximum Ru nanocrystal spatial density of 9.7 × 1011 /cm2 was achieved with an average size of 3.5 nm and standard deviation of the size of 20%. Electron charging/discharging effect in the Ru nanocrystals is demonstrated by measuring the flatband voltage shift in the capacitance-voltage measurement of metal-oxide-semiconductor memory capacitor structure.

Highly dispersed ultra-fine Ru nanoparticles anchored on nitrogen-doped carbon sheets for efficient hydrogen evolution reaction with a low overpotential

Development of highly efficient and costeffective hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) electrocatalyst that rivals benchmark Pt is highly desirable but challengeable. In this work, the integration of uniformly dispersed ultra-fine Ru nanoparticles with the nitrogen-doped carbon sheets (NCs) is reported as an efficient electrocatalyst. The Ru/NCs composite catalyst possesses abundant catalytic activity sites, and the synergy effect between Ru and NCs can modulate the electronic structure and adsorption of reaction intermediate to enhance the HER activity. Remarkably, the optimal 20% Ru/NCs catalyst delivers an overpotential of as low as 13 mV at the current density of 10 mA cm?2 and with a Tafel slope of 31.8 mV dec?1, which is superior to most of recently reported Ru-based electrocatalysts and even, superior to the state of the art Pt/C catalyst. This work provides an effective strategy for the development of ultra-efficient electrocatalyst for the water splitting in alkaline condition.

Enhancing electrochemical nitrogen reduction with Ru nanowires: via the atomic decoration of Pt

Achieving an efficient electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (ENRR) remains a great challenge, demanding the development of a new strategy for ENRR catalyst engineering. Herein, we demonstrate a largely improved ENRR by the controlled engineering of Ru nanowires with atomic Pt decoration. Specifically, the readily synthesized Ru88Pt12 nanowires exhibit a high NH3 production rate of 47.1 μg h-1 mgcat-1 and faradaic efficiency of 8.9% at -0.2 V, which are 5.3 and 14.6 times higher than those values for Ru nanowires. They also show outstanding stability, as evidenced by the full preservation of the NH3 yield and faradaic efficiency even after 15 h of electrocatalysis. As revealed by theoretical investigations, the d-band center of Ru atoms is upshifted by the tensile strain due to the presence of Pt atoms, leading to the selective enhancement of N2 adsorption and the stabilization of N2H?. Such an atomic engineering method may be applied to precisely tailor other metal nanocatalysts for different applications.