Synthesis of γ-nitro aliphatic methyl esters via michael additions promoted by microwave irradiation

Article abstract of DOI:10.3390/molecules14041595

A simple and efficient protocol has been developed for the direct synthesis of γ-nitrobutyric acid methyl esters under microwave irradiation. This methodology reduces reaction times from days to minutes, compared to conventional conditions. Additionally, these conditions increased yields and provided cleaner reactions.

Full text of DOI:10.3390/molecules14041595

Molecules 2009, 14, 1595-1604; doi:10.3390/molecules14041595
OPEN ACCESS
molecules
ISSN 1420-3049
www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules
Article
Synthesis of γ-Nitro Aliphatic Methyl Esters Via Michael
Additions Promoted by Microwave Irradiation
Jaime Escalante * and Francisco D. Díaz-Coutiño
Centro de Investigaciones Químicas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos. Av. Universidad
No. 1001, Col. Chamilpa, C.P. 62210 Cuernavaca, Mor., Mexico; Email: dadico@ciq.uaem.mx (F-
D.D-C.)
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-mail: jaime@ciq.uaem.mx.
Received: 5 February 2009; in revised form: 21 March 2009/ Accepted: 8 April 2009/
Published: 21 April 2009
Abstract: A simple and efficient protocol has been developed for the direct synthesis of γ-
nitrobutyric acid methyl esters under microwave irradiation. This methodology reduces
reaction times from days to minutes, compared to conventional conditions. Additionally,
these conditions increased yields and provided cleaner reactions.
Keywords: Microwave irradiation; α, β-Unsaturated; Michael additions; γ-Nitro aliphatic
methyl esters; Catalysis.
1. Introduction
Microwave (MW) irradiation is widely used to promote chemical reactions and a number of
reviews have advocated the use of MW technology in organic synthesis [1-2]. There are more than
3,000 documented examples of Microwave Assisted Organic Synthesis (MAOS) reported by both
academic and industrial laboratories, which suggests that most chemical transformations can be carried
out successfully under microwave conditions. The result of this has been a diverse range of chemical
transformations, successfully performed through microwave irradiation, including cycloaddition,
elimination, substitution and addition reactions [3-14]. Microwave-assisted heating under controlled
conditions is an invaluable technology because it often dramatically reduces reactions times, typically
from days or hours to minutes or even seconds [15-19]. The acceleration of reactions by MW exposure

Molecules 2009, 14
1596
results from material-wave interactions leading to thermal effects connected to the intervention of “hot
spots” (localized microscopic high temperatures) and specific (non-thermal) effects [20]. In the case of
the specific (non-thermal) MW effects it has been found that reactions proceed with considerable
lower yields under similar thermal conditions demonstrating that the effect of MW is evidently not
purely thermal. These specific non-thermal effects of MW are increased when the polarity of a system
is enhanced. In the Michael addition the rate-determining step consist in the nucleophilic addition on
carbon-carbon double bond of α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound. One can expect important specific
MW effects due to the enhancement of polarity of the system during the reaction progress, which is
provided by ionic dissociation of the ions pairs from the ground state of the reaction towards the
transition state, which is more polar due to the negative charge delocalization. The more important
stabilization of the transition state by dipole-dipole electrostatic interactions with the electric field is
therefore responsible for an enhancement of reactivity by a decrease of the activation energy [21,22].
The reaction of functionalized nitroalkanes with electrophiles such as Michael acceptors is one of
the most exploited procedures for the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds [23-27]. The versatility of
this reaction is due to the variety of Michael donors and Michael acceptors (α,β-unsaturated
compounds) that can be employed. The fact that the nitro functionality can easily be transformed into
an amine, an oxime, a ketone, or a carboxylic acid, provides a wide range of synthetically interesting
compounds [28-30]. Additionally, the carbon-carbon bond formation can potentially be made in a
diastereo- or enantioselective fashion through the use of modern techniques applicable to asymmetric
synthesis, affording optically active derivates.
As a part of one of our projects aimed at the development of biocatalysts for the resolution of
racemic amino methyl esters [31], our research group has developed a procedure for the preparation of
a series of nitro methyl esters (3, 5, 8, and 11-13), derived from 1,4-addition of nitroalkanes (2 and 10)
to methyl crotonate (1), methyl acrylate (4), and methyl methacrylate (7), and catalyzed by 1,8-
diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) [32] under microwave irradiation. The addition reactions were
carried out in nitromethane or nitroethane in a monomode CEM Discover microwave apparatus, in a
sealed system, in vessels rated for high pressure. In every case the experiments were performed on a
10 or 20 mmol scale.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Preparation of methyl 3-methyl-4-nitrobutanoate (3)
In an initial study, the reaction between methyl crotonate (1), nitromethane (2), and DBU was
carried out under the method described by Silverman (Scheme 1, Table 1, entry 1) [33], providing the
γ-nitro aliphatic methyl ester 3 in 72 % yield after a prolonged period of time (4,320 min). It is worth
mentioning that the product was also obtained under conventional conditions (70-75 oC), albeit after a
longer reaction time (Table 1, entry 2). Surprisingly, when the same reaction was performed under
microwave irradiation, the reaction times decreased dramatically to 5 min, see Table 1 (entry 3) and
gave better yields (≥ 98 %). To assess the number of equivalents of DBU required in this reaction, we
carried out experiments using 0.1, 0.05, and 0.01 equivalents of DBU in 5 min (Table 1, entries 4, 5,
and 6), with 0.1 equivalents being identified as the optimal concentration for this reaction. The low

Molecules 2009, 14
1597
yield in entry 6 (0.01 eq of DBU) could be overcome by increasing the reaction time to 20 min (Table
1, entry 7, ≥ 97 % yield). In order to demonstrate the effect of microwaves on the 1,4-addition the
o
reaction was carried out under conventional conditions (70-75 C) with 0.1 equivalents of DBU for 5
min (Table 1, entry 8). In this case, we found no product. Therefore, the observed rate-acceleration
using microwaves demonstrating that the effect of MW is evidently not purely thermal.
Scheme 1. Preparation of methyl 3-methyl-4-nitrobutanoate (3).
O2N
O
O
DBU
MW
+
CH3NO2
H3C
OCH3
H3C
OCH3
1
2
3
Table 1. Effect of DBU on the 1,4–addition of nitromethane (2) to methyl crotonate (1).
Entry Eq. DBU Power (W) Temperature (oC) Time (min) Yield 3 (%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.1
1.1
-
r. t.
4320
150
5
72
65a
≥ 98b
≥ 98b
0c
80c
10c
≥ 97c
-
70-75
70-75
70-75
70-75
70-75
70-75
70-75
1.1
50
50
-
0.1
5
0.1
5
0.05
0.01
0.05
50
50
50
5
5
20
a Reaction was performed under conventional conditions and the yield was obtained after
b
purification in column chromatography. Reaction was performed under microwave
irradiation and the yield was obtained after product purification by column
c
chromatography. Obtained by 1H-NMR.
2.2. Preparation of methyl 4-nitrobutanoate (5) and methyl 2-methyl-4-nitrobutanoate (8)
We extended this protocol to the Michael addition of nitromethane (2) to methyl acrylate (4) and
methyl methacrylate (7) (Scheme 2).
Scheme 2. Preparation of methyl 4-nitrobutanoate (5) and methyl 2-methyl-4-nitrobutanoate (8).
O2N
O
O
DBU
MW
+
CH3NO2
OCH3
OCH3
R1
R1
5: R1 = H
2
4: R1 = H
7: R1 = CH3
8: R1 = CH3
The addition of nitromethane (2) to methyl acrylate (4) provided compound 5 and one side product.
TLC analysis of the reaction mixture after 30 min showed two products, the more polar product being

Molecules 2009, 14
1598
1
13
the major component. After purification by column chromatography, the H- and C-NMR analysis
indicated that the less polar product corresponded to a double 1,4-addition product 6 (Figure 1),
whereas the more polar component was the desired product 5, obtaned in 10 % and 69 % yield
respectively. A proposed mechanism for the formation of dimeric product 6 is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 1. Double 1,4-addition product, compound 6.
O
O
CH3O
OCH3
NO2
Figure 2. Proposed mechanism for the formation of the double 1,4-addition product 6.
O
H
O2N
O2N
-
H
H
O
O
O
O
- H+DBU
H
OCH3
+
H
N
DBU
CH2NO2
OCH3
OCH3
DBU
H+DBU
-
H
O
O
O
O2N
O
O
O
H3CO
OCH3
CH3O
H+DBU
CH3O
OCH3
OCH3
NO2
NO2
+ H+DBU
6
The addition of nitromethane (2) to methyl methacrylate (7) was carried out initially under
conventional conditions in 4,320 min [33] (Table 2, entry 1). These conditions provided a mixture of
products 8 and 9 (Figure 3) in 47 and 53 % yields, respectively.
Figure 3. Double 1,4-addition product, compound 9.
O
O
CH3O
OCH3
CH3 NO2 CH3
1
When the same reaction was performed under conventional conditions, the H-NMR analysis
indicated a 27/73 ratio of the products 8/9 (Table 2, entry 2). In order to minimize the by-product 9 and
to determine the effect of the microwaves in this process, the equivalents of DBU and the time were
decreased to 0.1 eq and 5 min, respectively (Table 2, entry 3). Under these reaction conditions an 8:9:7
ratio of 45:45:10 was obtained. This result suggests that a thermal effect of the microwaves is essential
in the formation of product 9. In an effort to explore the specific (non-thermal) MW effect, we decided
to change the base in this reaction, tetramethylguanidine (TMG, pKa∼13.6) [34]. Interestingly, under
MW irradiation the ratio of 8:9:7 was 72/28/0 (Table 2, entry 4). However, when the reaction was
performed under conventional conditions, the ratio of 8:9:7 was 35/65/0 (Table 2, entry 5). This

Molecules 2009, 14
1599
demonstrates that, in the Michael addition reaction, the formation of product 9 is due to a thermal
effect, while the formation of product 8 can be explained by a specific (non-thermal) microwave effect
[20,21].
Table 2. Formation of 8 and 9 by 1,4–addition of nitromethane (2) to Methyl Methacrylate (7).
Temperature
Entry Eq. Base Power (W)
Time (min)
8 / 9 / 7 (%)a
(oC)
1
2
3
4
5
1.1 DBU
1.1 DBU
0.1 DBU
0.5 TMG
0.5 TMG
-
-
r. t.
4320
5
47 / 53 / 0
27/73/0
45/45/10
72 / 28 / 0
35/65/0
1
70-75
70-75
70-75
70-75
50
50
-
5
20
20
a Reaction was performed under microwave irradiation and the yield was obtained by H-
NMR.
2.3. Preparation of methyl 3-methy-4-nitropentanoate (11), methyl 4-nitropentanoate (12), and methyl
2-methy-4-nitropentanoate (13)
To expand the generality of this methodology, we also carried out the Michael addition of
nitroethane (10) to the α,β-unsaturated esters 1, 4, and 7 under microwave heating (Scheme 3).
Scheme 3. Preparation of methyl 3-methy-4-nitropentanoate (11), methyl 4-
nitropentanoate (12), and methyl 2-methyl-4-nitropentanoate (13).
CH3
O
O2N
R2
O
DBU
MW
+
CH3CH2NO2
R2
OCH3
OCH3
R1
R1
1: R1 = H, R2 = CH3
4: R1 = R2 = H
11: R1 = H, R2 = CH3
12: R1 = R2 = H
10
7: R1 = CH3, R2 = H
13: R1 = CH3, R2 = H
First, the addition of nitroethane (10) to methyl crotonate (1) was performed under microwave
irradiation with 0.05 eq of DBU for 5 min (Table 3, entry 1). This provided the ester 11 in excellent
yield as an inseparable mixture of isomers with no diastereomeric excess (50:50).
The addition of nitroethane (10) to methyl acrylate (4) was carried out for 5 min (Table 3, entry 2).
The product 12 was obtained in essentially quantitative yields. Finally, we found that the addition of
nitroethane (10) to methyl methacrylate (7) under microwave irradiation for 5 min (Table 3, entry 3)
1
affords the ester 13, which was isolated as a 78:22 diastereomeric mixture (by H-NMR analysis). In
this case, the esters were separated by column chromatography without assignment of the absolute
configuration.

Molecules 2009, 14
Table 3. Addition of nitroethane (10) to different methyl acrylates (1, 4, and 7).
1600
Methyl
Entry
Eq. DBU Power (W) Temperature (oC) Time (min) Product (%)a
acrylates
1
2
1
4
7
0.05
0.05
0.05
50
50
50
70-75
70-75
70-75
5
5
5
11 (98)b
12 (> 99)c
13 (83)b
3
Yield after their purification by column chromatography. b Diastereomeric ratio was obtained by
1H-NMR. c When the reaction is carried out for 4,320 min without microwave irradiation the yield
was only 44 %.
a
3. Conclusions
In summary, a practical and high-yielding methodology to synthesize γ-nitrobutyric acid methyl
esters under microwave irradiation has been developed. With this protocol the reaction times are
significantly shortened, in comparison with conventional conditions. The extension of this
methodology to other α,β-unsaturated compounds has proven successful and this work is currently
under further investigation.
4. Experimental
4.1. General
1H- and 13C-NMR spectra were obtained in CDCl3 solutions with TMS as internal standard on
Varian Gemini 200 or Inova 400 MHz spectrometers. Reactions were performed in sealed vessels in a
monomode microwave CEM Discover apparatus and the temperature was evaluated by infrared.
Methyl crotonate (1), nitromethane (2), methyl acrylate (4), methyl methacrylate (7), nitroethane (10),
DBU, and TMG were purchased from Aldrich and used without further purification.
4.2. General procedure: Synthesis of methyl 4-nitro alkyl esters via microwave irradiation
A solution of α,β-unsaturated ester (1, 4, 7) and the corresponding nitroalkane (2 or 10) in DBU or
TMG were added to a 10-mL glass microwave reaction vessel containing a stir bar. The reaction vessel
was sealed with a cap and then placed into the microwave cavity. The microwave unit was
programmed to heat the reaction mixture to the desired temperature. After the reaction was completed
o
and the vessel was cooled to below 50 C using a flow of compressed air, the crude material was
purified by column chromatography to give the product.
Methyl 3-methyl-4-nitrobutanoate (3): Prepared from methyl crotonate (1, 10 mmol), nitromethane (2,
25 mmol) and DBU (0.1 mmol). The microwave unit was programmed to 70-75 oC and a power of 50
Watts for 5 min. After the reaction was completed, the vessel was cooled to below 50 oC using a flow
of compressed air. The crude material was purified by column chromatography (hexane–ethyl acetate

Molecules 2009, 14
1601
8:2), afforded the product 3 (≥ 98 %) as a colorless liquid. 1H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.11 (d, J =
7.0 Hz, 3H), 2.42 (dd, J = 6.8, 7.0 Hz, 2H), 2.68-2.90 (m, 1H), 3.70 (s, 3H), 4.35 (dd, J = 12.1, 6.9 Hz,
13
1H), 4.49 (dd, 12.1, 6.2 Hz, 1H); C-NMR (50 MHz, CDCl3) δ 17.6, 29.7, 37.9, 52.1, 80.4, 171.8;
HRMS (FAB+): calcd for [M+H]+ C6H12NO4: 162.0766; found: 162.0779.
Methyl 4-nitrobutanoate (5) and dimethyl 4-nitroheptanedioate (6): According with the general
procedure, methyl acrylate (4, 10 mmol), nitromethane (2, 25 mmol) and DBU (0.05 mmol) were
o
heated at 70-75 C with a power of 25 Watts for 0.5 h. The crude material was purified by column
chromatography (hexane–ethyl acetate 95:5) afforded 5 (69 %) and 6 (10 %) as a colorless liquid.
1
13
Compound 5: H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 2.04-2.33 (m, 4H), 2.36-2.49 (m, 2H), 3.69 (s, 3H); C
NMR (50 MHz, CDCl3) δ 28.86, 30.10, 52.20, 86.77, 172.32; MS–EI+ (m/z, %): 116 (M–OMe).
1
Compound 6: H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 2.20-2.38 (m, 9H), 3.69 (s, 6H); 13C-NMR (50 MHz,
CDCl3) δ 28.63, 30.40, 52.24, 91.96, 172.20; MS–EI+ (m/z, %): 202 (M–OMe).
Methyl 2-methyl-4-nitrobutanoate (8) and dimethyl 2,6-dimethyl-4-nitroheptanedioate (9): Prepared
from methyl methacrylate (7, 20 mmol), nitromethane (2, 25 mmol) and TMG (0.5 mmol). The
Microwave unit was programmed to 70-75 oC and a power of 25 Watts for 20 min. After the reaction
o
was completed, the vessel was cooled to below 50 C using a flow of compressed air. The crude
material was purified by column chromatography (hexane–ethyl acetate 98:2), afforded the product 8
(72 %) and 9 (28 %) as a colorless liquid. Compound 8: 1H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.25 (d, J = 7.0
13
Hz, 3H), 2.0-2.43 (m, 2H), 2.50-2.70 (m, 1H), 3.71 (s, 3H), 4.46 (t, J = 7.0 Hz, 2H,); C-NMR (50
MHz, CDCl3) δ 17.4, 30.7, 36.6, 52.2, 73.5, 175.3; HRMS (FAB+): calcd for [M+H]+ C6H12NO4:
1
162.0766; found: 162.0863. Compound 9: H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.20 (d, J = 5.80 Hz, 3H),
1.24 (d, J = 5.80 Hz, 3H), 1.74-1.93 (m, 2H), 2.0-2.11 (m, 2H), 2.35-2.53 (m, 2H), 3.69 (s, 3H), 3.71
(s, 3H), 4.57-4.74 (m, J = 4.4 Hz, 1H); 13C-NMR (50 MHz, CDCl3) δ 17.96, 36.29,37.59, 52.08, 85.41,
175.36; HRMS (FAB+): calcd for [M+H]+ C11H20NO6: 262.1246; found: 262.1270.
Methyl 3-methy-4-nitropentanoate (11): Prepared from methyl crotonate (1, 10 mmol), nitroethane (10,
25 mmol) and DBU (0.05 mmol). The microwave unit was programmed to 70-75 oC and a power of 50
Watts for 5 min to afford a 1:1 mixture of diastereomeric compounds, which were not separable. The
crude material was purified by column chromatography (hexane–ethyl acetate 9:1), afforded the
product 11 (98 %) as a colorless liquid. 1H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.03 (dd, J = 1.2, 1.6 Hz, 3H),
1.53 (dd, J = 3.6, 3.6 Hz, 3H) 2.18–2.30 (m, 1H), 2.35–2.43 (m, 1H), 2.46-2.66 (m, 1H), 3.70 (s, 3H),
4.53–4.70 (m, 1H); 13C-NMR (50 MHz, CDCl3) δ 15.64, 15.81, 16.55, 34.57, 34.69, 37.30, 37.54,
52.08, 86.57, 86.62, 171.97, 172.17; HRMS (FAB+): calcd for [M+H]+ C11H20NO6: 176.0878; found:
176.0945.
Methyl 4-nitropentanoate (12): Prepared from methyl acrylate (7, 20 mmol), nitroethane (10, 25
o
mmol) and DBU (0.05 mmol). The microwave unit was programmed to 70-75 C and a power of 50
Watts for 5 min. After the reaction was completed, the vessel was cooled to below 50 oC using a flow
of compressed air. The crude material was purified by column chromatography (hexane–ethyl acetate
80:20), afforded the product 12 (> 99 %) as a colorless liquid. 1H-NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.57 (d, J

Molecules 2009, 14
1602
= 6.8Hz, 3H), 2.06–2.16 (m, 1H), 2.23–2.34 (m, 1H), 2.35-2.47 (m, 2H), 3.70 (s, 3H), 4.62–4.71 (m,
1H); 13C-NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3) δ 19.2, 29.7, 29.8, 51.8, 82.3, 172.3; HRMS (FAB+): calcd for
[M+H]+ C6H12NO4: 162.0766; found: 162.0768.
Methyl 2-methy-4-nitropentanoate (13): Prepared from methyl methacrylate (7, 20 mmol), nitroethane
(10, 25 mmol) and DBU (0.05 mmol). The microwave unit was programmed to 70-75 oC and a power
of 50 Watts for 5 min. After the reaction was completed, the vessel was cooled to below 50 oC using a
flow of compressed air. The crude material was purified by column chromatography (hexane 100%),
afforded a 72:22 diastereomeric mixture of 13 as a colorless liquid. Less polar compound 13: 1H-NMR
(200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.21 (d, J = 7.4 Hz, 3H), 1.55 (d, J = 6.6 Hz, 3H) 2.02–2.09 (m, 2H), 2.39–2.57
13
(m, 1H), 3.71 (s, 3H), 4.56–4.73 (m, J = 6.8 Hz, 1H); C-NMR (50 MHz, CDCl3) δ 18.17, 20.17,
36.48, 38.70, 52.13, 82.10, 175.74. More polar compound 13: 1H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl3) δ 1.24 (d, J
= 7.0 Hz, 3H), 1.56 (d, J = 6.8 Hz, 3H) 1.75–1.88 (m, 1H), 2.38–2.55 (m, 2H), 3.70 (s, 3H), 4.56–4.75
13
(m, J = 6.6 Hz, 1H); C-NMR (50 MHz, CDCl3) δ 17.10, 19.72, 36.44, 38.38, 52.18, 81.27, 175.47;
MS–EI+ (m/z, %): 144 (M–OMe).
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the CONACYT for financial support (Project No. 48356-Q). Daniel Díaz-
Coutiño thanks CONACyT for a scholarship. We are grateful to Dr. Ismael León Rivera for technical
support and to Grace Vanier, Saúl Jaime-Figueroa, and Robert Greenhouse for many important
observations.
References and Notes
1. Loupy, A.; Petit, A.; Hamelin, J.; Texier-Boullet, F.; Jacquault, P.; Mathe, D. New solvent-free
organic synthesis using focused microwaves. Synthesis 1998, 9, 1213-1234.
2. Caddick, S. Microwave assisted organic reactions. Tetrahedron 1995, 51, 10403-10432.
3. Kappe, C.O. Controlled Microwave Heating in Modern Organic Synthesis. Angew. Chem., Int.
Ed. 2004, 43, 6250-6284.
4. Lidström, P.; Tierney, J.; Wathey, B.; Westman, J. Microwave assisted organic synthesis.
Tetrahedron 2001, 57, 9225-9283.
5. Escalante, J.; Carrillo-Morales, M.; Linzaga, I. Michael Additions of Amines to Methyl Acrylates
Promoted by Microwave Irradiation. Molecules 2008, 13, 340-347.
6. Larhed, M.; Hallberg, A. Microwave-promoted palladium catalyzed coupling reactions. J. Org.
Chem. 1996, 61, 9582-9584.
7. Garg, N.; Larhed, M.; Hallberg, A. Heck arylation of 1,2-cyclohexanedione and 2-ethoxy-2-
cyclohexenone. J. Org. Chem. 1998, 63, 4158-4162.
8. Kabalka, G.W.; Wang, L.; Namboodiri, V.; Pagni, R.M. Rapid microwave-enhanced, solventless
Sonogashira coupling on alumina. Tetrahedron Lett. 2000, 41, 5151-5154.
9. Blettner, C.G.; Köning, W.A.; Stenzel, W.; Schotten, T. Microwave-assisted aqueous Suzuki
cross-coupling reactions. J. Org. Chem. 1999, 64, 3885-3890.

Molecules 2009, 14
1603
10. Larhed, M. Hoshino, M.; Hadida, S.; Curran, D.P.; Hallberg, A. Rapid fluorous Stille coupling
reactions conducted under microwave irradiation. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 5583-5587.
11. Maleczka, R.E. Lavis, J.M.; Clark, D.H.; Gallagher, W.P. Microwave-assisted one-pot
hydrostannylation/Stille couplings. Org. Lett. 2000, 2, 3655-3658.
12. Loupy, A., Ed. Microwaves in Organic Synthesis, 2nd. Ed. Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany,
2006; Vol. 1, pp. 1-56.
13. Kappe, C.; Stadler, A.; Mannhold, R.; Kubinyi, H.; Folkers, G. Methods and Principles in
Medicinal Chemistry: Microwaves in Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 25. Wiley-VCH:
Weinheim, Germany, 2005; pp. 9-24.
14. Hayes, B.L.; Microwave Synthesis: Chemistry at the Speed of Light. CEM Publishing: Mattehews,
N.C., USA, 2002; pp. 11-26.
15. Kappe, O.C.; Dallinger, D. The impact of microwave synthesis on drug discovery. Nature Reviews
2006, 5, 51-64.
16. Mavandadi, F.; Lidströn, P. Microwave–Assisted Chemistry in Drug Discovery. Current Topics in
Medicinal Chemistry 2004, 4, 773-792.
17. Shipe, W.D.; Wolkenberg, S.E.; Lidsley, C.W. Accelerating lead development by microwave–
enhanced medicinal chemistry. Drug Discovery Today: Technologies 2005, 2, 155-161.
18. Mavandadi, F.; Piotti, A. The impact of microwave–assisted organic synthesis in drug discovery.
DDT-Reviews 2006, 11, 165-174.
19. Kappe, O.C. Microwave dielectric heating in synthetic organic chemistry. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2008,
37, 1127-1139.
20. Perreux, L.; Loupy, A. A tentative rationalization of microwave effects in organic synthesis
according to the reaction medium, and mechanistic considerations. Tetrahedron 2001, 57, 9199-
9223.
21. Dandia, A.; Sati, M.; Arya, K.; Sharma, R.; Loupy, A. Facile one pot microwave induced solvent-
free synthesis and antifungal, Antitubercular screening of spiro [1,5]-benzothiazepin-
2,3´[3´H]indol-2[1´H]-ones. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2003, 51, 1137-1141.
22. Dandia, A.; Sati, M.; Arya, K.; Loupy, A. One-pot dry media synthesis of new tetracyclic 1,5-
benzothiazepines under microwave activation. Heterocycles 2003, 60, 563- 569.
23. Chasar, D.W. An improved Synthesis of 4-nitrocarboxilic Acid Esters. Synthesis Communications
1982 , 841-842.
24. Ballini, R.; Petrini, M. Facile and Inexpensive Synthesis of 4-Oxoalkanoic Acids from Primary
Nitroalkanes and Acrolein. Synthesis 1986, 1024-1026.
25. Chetia, A.; Saikia, Ch. J.; Lekhok, K.C.; Boruah, R.C. A facile synthesis of 1,7-dicarbonyl
compounds via three-component Michael addition reactions. Tetrahedron Letters 2004, 45, 2649-
2651.
26. Chamakh, A.; M´hirsi, M.; Villieras, J.; Lebreton, J.; Amri, H. A Simplified Route to (E)-2-
Alkylidene-1,4-diketones. Synthesis 2000, 295-299.
27. Ballini, R.; Barboni, L.; Fiorini, D.; Palmieri, A.; Petrini, M. Nitro compounds as useful reagents
for the synthesis of dicarbonyl derivates. Arkivoc 2006, (vi) , 127-152.
28. Tucker, J.A.; Clayton, T.L.; Mordas, D.M. Alkylation of Ketene Silyl Acetals with Nitroolefins
Mediated by Sterically Encumbered Lewis Acids. J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62, 4370-4375.

Molecules 2009, 14
1604
29. Busch, K.; Groth, U.M.; Kühnle, W.; Schöllkopf, U. Asymmetric Synthesis of Diastereomerically
and Enantiomerically Pure α-Amino-γ-Nitro Carboxylic Esters via Michael Addition of the
Titanated Bislactim Ether of Cyclo (-L-Val-Gly-) to Nitroolefines. Tetrahedron 1992, 48, 5607-
5618.
30. Hayashi, T.; Senda, T.; Ogasawara, M. Rhodium-Catalized Asymmetric Conjugate Addition of
Organoboronic Acids to Nitroalkenenes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 10716-10717.
31. Flores-Sánchez, P.; Escalante, J.; Castillo, E. Enzymatic resolution of N-protected-β3-amino
methyl esters, using lipase B from Candida antarctica. Tetrahedron-Asymmetry 2005, 16, 629-634.
32. Phiashivongsa, P.; Samoshin, V.V.; Gross, P.H. Henry condensations with 4,6-O-
benzylidenylated and non-protected D-glucose and L-fucose via DBU-catalysis. Tetrahedron Lett.
2003, 44, 5495-5498.
33. Andruszkiewicz, R.; Silverman, R.; A convenient synthesis of 3-alkyl-4-aminobutanoic acids.
Synthesis 1989, 19 , 953-955.
34. http://www.chem.wisc.edu/areas/reich/pkatable/index.htm. (accessed March 30, 2009).
Sample Availability: Samples are available from the authors.
© 2009 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).