The application of a monolithic triphenylphosphine reagent for conducting Appel reactions in flow microreactors

Article abstract of DOI:10.3762/bjoc.7.194

Herein we describe the application of a monolithic triphenylphosphine reagent to the Appel reaction in flow-chemistry processi to generate various brominated products with high purity and in excellent yields, and with no requirement for further off-line pu fication.

Full text of DOI:10.3762/bjoc.7.194

The application of a monolithic triphenylphosphine
reagent for conducting Appel reactions in
flow microreactors
Kimberley A. Roper1, Heiko Lange1, Anastasios Polyzos1,
Malcolm B. Berry2, Ian R. Baxendale1 and Steven V. Ley*1
Full Research Paper
Open Access
Address:
Innovative Technology Centre, Department of Chemistry, University
of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, CB2
EW, UK and 2GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage,
Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1648–1655.
1
doi:10.3762/bjoc.7.194
1
Received: 30 September 2011
Accepted: 16 November 2011
Published: 08 December 2011
Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
Email:
Steven V. Ley* - svl1000@cam.ac.uk
This article is part of the Thematic Series "Chemistry in flow systems II".
Guest Editor: A. Kirschning
*
Corresponding author
Keywords:
© 2011 Roper et al; licensee Beilstein-Institut.
License and terms: see end of document.
Appel reaction; bromination; flow chemistry; solid-supported reagent;
triphenylphosphine monolith
Abstract
Herein we describe the application of a monolithic triphenylphosphine reagent to the Appel reaction in flow-chemistry processing,
to generate various brominated products with high purity and in excellent yields, and with no requirement for further off-line puri-
fication.
Introduction
Flow chemistry is well-established as a useful addition to the these can suffer from poor mass transfer as well as presenting
toolbox of the modern research chemist, with advantages practical problems caused by the swelling or compression char-
accrued through increased efficiency, reproducibility and reac- acteristics of the beads related to the solvent employed. To
tion safety [1-6]. Further benefits can be realised when flow circumvent some of the issues with bead-type supports, mono-
processing techniques are combined with the use of solid- liths have been developed as replacements for use in
supported reagents and scavengers, which allow telescoping of continuous-flow synthesis. Monoliths are a single continuous
reactions or in-line removal of byproducts to both increase the piece of uniformly porous material prepared by precipitation
purity profile of the output product stream and to, ideally, polymerisation of a functionalised monomer [13-17]. They have
negate the need for subsequent purification [7-12]. Reagents on been shown to have superior chemical efficiency over other
macroporous or gel-type beads are commonly used; however, bead-based materials, due to enhanced mass transfer governed
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Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1648–1655.
by convective flow rather than diffusion, as well as possessing ever, 3 is in equilibrium with the inverted ion pair 8, which can
lower void volumes [18]. Practically, their rigid structure is proceed via pathway B in which 8 reacts with a second equiva-
maintained over a wide range of solvents and under reasonable lent of triphenylphosphine to form the dibromophosphorane 9
pressure due to the high degree of cross linking, making them and phosphorane 10. This dibromophosphorane 9 is then able to
easier to use in flow processes. Historically monoliths have react with an alcohol to give intermediate 4, which can proceed
traditionally been used to facilitate the isocratic separation of to the product, whereas 10 proceeds to a phosphonium salt
peptides [19]; however, our group and others have shown intermediate 11. This can then react again with another equiva-
interest in using monolithic supports to facilitate key chemical lent of triphenylphosphine and continue reacting in a similar
transformations [20-31]. We recently reported on the develop- manner until the methylphosphonium salt 15 is formed. This
ment of a new monolithic triphenylphosphine reagent and its pathway, therefore, can use up to four equivalents of triphenyl-
use in the Staudinger aza-Wittig reaction in flow [32,33]. Here phosphine to give up to three brominated products. The rate
we discuss the application of this monolith to the transforma- determining step for both pathways has been proposed to be the
tion of an alkyl alcohol into the corresponding alkyl bromide by formation of an active halogenating species 3 or 10 [40]. The
using carbon tetrabromide in the Appel reaction.
increase in the rate of reaction with regards to the Appel reac-
tion, with solid-supported triphenylphosphine compared to the
In the 1960s Ramirez and co-workers reported the formation of solution-phase counterpart, is proposed to be a result of neigh-
a phosphine–methylene species when triphenylphosphine was bouring-group participation assisting in the formation of the
mixed with carbon tetrabromide [34]. This was utilised by active species 9 and 10 in pathway B [39,41,42]. Analysis by
Appel in the mid 70s, who reported on the use of triphenylphos- gas chromatography of chloride Appel reactions indicated that
phine and carbon tetrachloride to convert an alcohol into the the relative proportion of chloroform was a lot lower than
corresponding alkyl chloride [35]. The reaction produces would be expected if both pathways were followed equally in
byproducts, such as triphenylphosphine oxide, during the reac- both the solution or solid-phase reactions (5% with solution-
tion that can be very difficult to remove, and extensive, time- based triphenylphosphine and 18–29% with solid-supported tri-
consuming purification protocols are often needed in order to phenylphosphine), indicating that path B is the major pathway
isolate the desired product in high purity. We envisioned that in either case [40,43].
the use of an immobilised triphenylphosphine source in combin-
ation with continuous-flow technologies could circumvent this Using a polystyrene-based triphenylphosphine monolith we
problem, allowing easy separation of the phosphine side hoped to benefit from the accelerated rate of reaction observed
products through its retention on the solid phase. Examination as well as to circumvent problems associated with the use of
of the literature revealed that a variety of different bead bead-based immobilised reagents in continuous flow.
supports have been used to facilitate this reaction to produce
Results and Discussion
chloro-, bromo- and iodoalkanes from the corresponding alco-
hols [36-38]. However, the flow characteristics of beads make Formation of the triphenylphosphine monolith
these techniques undesirable for application in a continuous- The triphenylphosphine monoliths were formed by precipita-
flow setup, and the relatively high cost of these reagents limits tion polymerisation of the appropriate phosphine monomer with
their widespread use in common laboratory practices. It is a cross-linking component and a porogen [32,33]. A stock solu-
particularly interesting that these past investigations have noted tion of the functionalised monomer (diphenyl(4-vinyl-
an increase in the rate of the reaction on a solid-supported phenyl)phosphine), cross-linking material (divinylbenzene and
reagent, attributed to neighbouring group participation as a styrene) and porogen (1-dodecanol) was heated to 50 °C until a
consequence of using a polymeric source of triphenylphosphine homogeneous solution was obtained. The dibenzoyl peroxide
[
39]. Mechanistically, the Appel reaction has been proposed to was then added and the mixture maintained at elevated tempera-
proceed via two complex and competing pathways (Scheme 1). ture (50 °C) until the initiator had dissolved (approximately 5
In pathway A the reaction is thought to proceed through the minutes). The mixture was decanted into a glass column and the
simple ion pair 3 formed by the reaction of one equivalent of ends were sealed with custom-made PTFE end pieces. The
triphenylphosphine (1) and one equivalent of carbon tetra- column was incubated at 92 °C [44,45] for 48 hours in a
bromide (2). This can react with the alcohol substrate to form an Vapourtec R4 heater to give a white polymeric solid, which
oxy-phosphonium 4 along with bromoform (5), which is filled the column. It was noted that the addition of styrene as
removed under reduced pressure at the end of the reaction along part of the cross-linking component was necessary to increase
with the solvent. The oxy-phosphonium salt 4 then reacts with the active loading of the monolith during the reactions. Diben-
the bromide counterion to produce the substituted product 6 zoyl peroxide was chosen as a radical initiator as it was found to
along with the triphenylphosphine oxide byproduct (7). How- be soluble in the polymerisation mixture at the stock solution
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Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1648–1655.
Scheme 1: The two proposed mechanistic pathways for the Appel reaction.
temperature of 50 °C, giving a homogeneous mixture. The which is comparable to commercially available triphenylphos-
slower initiation rate compared to azo-based initiators also phine resins.
ensured the entire polymerisation mixture was at the target
temperature before precipitation of polymer chains occurred Loading the monolith
(
approximately one hour after heating at 92 °C), ensuring a The monolith was then loaded with carbon tetrabromide to give
more homogeneous polymerisation. Following this polymerisa- the active species with which to perform the Appel bromination
tion procedure, the monolith was cooled to room temperature reaction. To achieve this, carbon tetrabromide in dichloro-
and the end plugs were replaced with standard flow-through methane [46] was recirculated through the monolith for 16
connectors. Dry dichloromethane was pumped through the hours at room temperature (Scheme 2), resulting in a colour
column, which was heated to 60 °C, to elute the porogen and change from white (a) to a light brown colour (b) (shown in
any unreacted monomer starting material. It was found that this Figure 1). Elemental analysis revealed that the monolith
polymerisation technique gave consistent, low pressure drops consisted of 27.6% bromine showing that the carbon tetra-
across the monolith, and these were consistent across multiple bromide had loaded onto the monolith and there was an average
batches of monolith syntheses, making them ideal for use in a of less than one molecule of carbon tetrabromide per phos-
flow-chemistry setup. Elemental analysis showed an approxi- phorus atom. This suggests that a complex mixture of phos-
mate loading of 1.87 mmol of phosphorus per gram, giving a phorus species is present within the monolith. Triphenylphos-
calculated loading of 4.68 mmol of phosphorus per monolith, phine oxide, from the starting material, and unreacted triphenyl-
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Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1648–1655.
Scheme 2: Functionalisation of the triphenylphosphine monolith by using carbon tetrabromide in a recycling process.
phosphine, due to inaccessible sites within the monolith, are of polymer-supported tosyl chloride or by adding calcium
probably present along with potentially a complex combination chloride to the recycling carbon tetrabromide solution was also
of active brominating species. If the monolith reacts in the way unsuccessful. Although the presence of dodecanol caused a
reported in previous literature, then both mechanistic pathways partially depleted monolith during the loading process, these
are followed and therefore many different active brominating monoliths were still successfully used for the Appel reaction.
species are present (3, 8, 9 and 10). Although it is thought that a No detrimental effect on the reaction products was observed,
complex mixture is present, the loaded brominating monolith is although obviously a lower active loading of the monolith was
represented as intermediate 3 for simplicity in the schemes that observed. In order to achieve the maximum active loading of
follow.
1.3 mmol for a monolith, a previously loaded monolith was
placed in-line with the unloaded triphenylphosphine monolith in
the recycling procedure with carbon tetrabromide.
Bromination reactions in flow with the loaded
triphenylphosphine monolith
With the functionalised, active brominating monolith in hand,
the transformation of an alcohol into the corresponding bro-
mide in flow was investigated. By employing the commercially
available Uniqsis FlowSyn, a 0.1 M solution of the alcohol in
dry dichloromethane was prepared and loaded into the sample
loop (2 mL). This solution was then switched in-line to be
pumped through the monolith at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min, the
output stream was collected for 1 hour and the solvent removed
Figure 1: a. Unfunctionalised triphenylphosphine monolith; b. Mono-
lith after fuctionalisation with carbon tetrabromide; c. Monolith after
partial consumption of the active brominating agent.
(
(
Scheme 3). For benzylic and sterically unhindered alcohols
Table 1, entries 1–6), complete conversion was achieved by a
single pass of the alcohol through the monolith, requiring only
Reaction of this monolith with an alcohol resulted in a further solvent removal to yield the pure brominated product in high
colour change from a brown monolith (b) to a depleted mono-
lith (c) (Figure 1), with a pale yellow region corresponding to
the triphenylphosphine oxide, or potentially later intermediates
in pathway B, formed in the Appel reaction. This same colour
change was initially observed during the loading protocol when
approximately one-fifth of the coloured region of the monolith
was transformed to the pale yellow colour. In this case, analysis
of the recycled solvent suggested the presence of 1-bromodo-
decane and that the dodecanol porogen was not being fully
removed during the initial flushing procedure, but instead was
being brominated during the subsequent loading process. Unfor-
tunately attempts to adapt the solvent system to ensure complete
dodecanol removal before loading were unsuccessful. Scaven-
ging the dodecanol in the loading process by means of a column
Scheme 3: Flow synthesis of bromides from alcohols by using the
functionalised triphenylphosphine monolith.
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Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1648–1655.
Table 1: Bromides prepared from the corresponding alcohols by using the functionalised triphenylphosphine monolith.
Entry
Starting material
Product
Conversion
Time required for Isolated yieldc
after one pass (%)a
full conversionb
(%)
1
2
100
100
–
80d
–
–
82
92
3
100
4
5
100
100
–
–
74
92
6
7
100
94
–
91
95
1 h 15 min
8
9
84
1 h 15 min
95
85
2 h 30 min
68e
77
10
<0.5
14 h
aOne pass through the monolith at 0.5 mL/min, percentage conversion determined by 1H NMR analysis, bsubstrates recirculated through the mono-
lith at 0.5 mL/min until full consumption of starting material indicated by TLC, creactions performed on a 0.2 mmol scale, dvolatile product,
ecorresponding solution-phase triphenylphosphine batch process yielded 52% pure product after chromatography.
yield. An analogous reaction with polymer-supported triphenyl- sion it was found to be necessary to recycle the flow stream
phosphine beads, loaded and reacted in an identical way, only through the monolith. When a recycling protocol was
gave 26% conversion to halogenated material, which was employed, upon full consumption of the starting material by
impure by 1H NMR for cinnamyl bromide (Table 1, entry 2). thin-layer chromatography the input was changed to a fresh
For less-activated substrates, such as the iodo-substituted solution of dichloromethane. The system was then flushed for a
benzylic alcohols (Table 1, entries 7 and 8), a single pass gave further 45 minutes at 0.5 mL/min to yield the pure bromide pro-
incomplete conversion to the bromide, resulting in a mixture of duct following removal of the solvent. An investigation of the
the starting alcohol and the bromide product upon removal of substrate scope revealed that starting materials containing
the solvent. Conversion to the bromide could be increased by unprotected amines could not be transformed into the corres-
decreasing the flow rate; however, to obtain complete conver- ponding bromides. Little or no mass return was observed
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Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 2011, 7, 1648–1655.
suggesting that an aminophosphonium species was formed on After the brown colouration had been diminished through bro-
the monolith in accordance with similar reactions between tri- mination reactions, the monolith activity reduced significantly,
phenylphosphine, bromine and amines [47]. It was possible to giving 19% conversion to halogenated product by using a previ-
brominate the monoprotected aniline (Table 1, entry 9) by using ously readily converted substrate (Table 1, entry 6). Each
the triphenylphosphine monolith, but recycling for a longer time monolith was found to convert 1.3 mmol of alcohol before the
was required, and resulted in a lower isolated yield than most of conversion dropped.
the other substrates. For the nonactivated alkyl alcohol (Table 1,
entry 10), recycling for 14 hours was found to be necessary to It was found that heating the monolith increased the rate of
achieve complete conversion to the desired bromide. While in reaction and thus could be used to promote the reaction of the
this work the benzylic brominated products were not used in aniline substrate (Table 1, entry 9) in one pass, albeit with a
subsequent flow reactions, such as alkylations, these processes lower isolated yield [50]. While investigating the feasibility of
have been reported by us [48] and others [49] using continuous- heating the monolith in order to drive the less activated
flow technologies.
4-iodobenzyl alcohol (Table 1, entry 7) to completion, it was
found that heating the monolith resulted in the production of an
A single monolith can be used for many different alcohols with impurity, at 29.7% conversion by 1H NMR (with 64.5%
no cross-contamination detected by 1H NMR between conversion to the bromide). This was identified as 1-(chloro-
substrates. It was found that the colour of the monolith can be methyl)-4-iodobenzene, i.e., the starting material underwent
used as an approximate indication of the degree of loading of chlorination rather than bromination. The two halogenated
active brominating species on the monolith, and the off-white, products could not be separated by flash column chromatog-
pale yellow region of triphenylphosphine oxide, or later stage raphy. Interestingly this impurity was also observed in small
intermediate, was formed in a proportional manner to the quan- amounts when a loaded monolith was stored for prolonged
tity of the substrate that was passed through the monolith periods at room temperature in the presence of dichloro-
(
Figure 2). Elemental analysis revealed that the off-white region methane. The Appel reaction using 4-iodobenzyl alcohol
contained 19.8% bromine, implying that although bromine is (Table 1, entry 7) was repeated with a loaded monolith stored in
consumed proportionally with the consumption of the dark- dichloromethane at room temperature for 9 days and resulted in
coloured areas of the monolith, there is nevertheless still a conversion of less than 3% to the chloride by 1H NMR. The
bromine left on the monolith. This bromine could be present in conversion to the chloride was found to increase with increased
hard-to-access active sites within the polymeric structure of the flushing of dichloromethane through the monolith, implying
monolith, but could also be accounted for by some of the late that the source of the chloride was through exchange with the
intermediates in pathway B (10–15 in Scheme 1). The conver- dichloromethane solvent. From our initial screens, dichloro-
sion of a particular substrate did not decrease with continued methane was found to be the optimum solvent for monolith
use of the monolith until the monolith became completely pale loading and the bromination reactions. As this impurity was
yellow, at which point the activity of the monolith decreased only observed at elevated temperatures or with monoliths that
sharply. Up to this point the conversion of a substrate was had been stored over long periods of time, we feel that we have
comparable at the beginning and at the end of the monolith use. demonstrated that it is not a significant problem for the main
Figure 2: Linear decrease of the brown decolourisation.
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Conclusion
In summary, the monolithic triphenylphosphine reagent recently
developed by our group [32,33] was also successfully applied to
facilitate the Appel reaction. An active brominating species was
formed readily by recirculating carbon tetrabromide through the
monolith. This loaded monolith was then successfully applied
to the Appel reaction, allowing the synthesis of the corres-
ponding brominated product from an alcohol in high purity and
yield, with only a simple removal of the solvent required. Activ-
ated benzylic alcohols were transformed to the desired bromide
with a single pass, whereas sterically hindered or alkyl alcohols
required a recycling process through the monolith to reach
complete conversion to the brominated product. Heating the
monolith in an attempt to accelerate the reaction was found to
be unsuccessful due to the decomposition of the active bromin-
ating salt, resulting in the formation of an undesired chloride
byproduct.
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Supporting Information
1
Supporting information features full experimental details
and data for the reactions performed above.
Supporting Information File 1
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