19926-50-2

Usage

Clinical Use

Adjunct to diet and statin in hypertriglyceridaemia Adjunct to secondary prevention after a MI

Drug interactions

Potentially hazardous interactions with other drugs Anticoagulants: may increase bleeding time.

Metabolism

DHA and EPA are metabolised and oxidised in the liver, which is the site of biosynthesis of n-3 fatty acid intermediates, synthesizing VLDL that transport fatty acids in the plasma to tissues.

InChI:InChI=1/C15H14O2/c1-2-17-15(16)14-10-6-9-13(11-14)12-7-4-3-5-8-12/h3-11H,2H2,1H3

Upstream product

• 64-17-5 ethanol 
• 716-76-7 3-phenylbenzoic acid 
• 24398-88-7 ethyl 3-bromobenzoate 
• 71478-47-2 phenylmanganese(II) chloride 
• 1128-76-3 3-chloro-benzoic acid ethyl ester 
• 98-80-6 phenylboronic acid 
• 58313-23-8 3-iodobenzoic acid methyl ester 
• 100-59-4 phenylmagnesium chloride 
• 65-85-0 benzoic acid 
• 591-50-4 iodobenzene 
• 582-33-2 3-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester 
• 73183-34-3 bis(pinacol)diborane 
• 3262-89-3 triphenylboroxine 
• 21526-03-4 3-(ethoxycarbonyl)benzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate 

Downstream Products

• 1451007-44-5 3-([1,1'-biphenyl]-3-yl)-3H-1,2,4-triazol-5-amine 
• 1297270-65-5 3-(3-biphenyl)-5-isopropyl-4-phenyl-4H-1,2,4-triazole 
• 709653-55-4 3-biphenylcarboxylic acid hydrazide 
• 42498-44-2 3-phenylbenzoyl chloride 
• 38580-82-4 3-biphenylylmethyl chloride 
• 69605-90-9 3-phenyl-benzyl alcohol 

Relevant academic research and scientific papers

Homogeneous Catalysts Supported on Soluble Polymers: Biphasic Suzuki-Miyaura Coupling of Aryl Chlorides Using Phase-Tagged Palladium-Phosphine Catalysts

The Suzuki-Miyaura coupling of aryl chlorides and PhB(OH)2 under biphasic conditions (DMSO/heptane) can be performed in almost quantitative yields over several cycles by means of polymeric Pd catalysts with soluble polyethylene glycol phase tags. Three sterically demanding and electron-rich phosphines 1-CH2Br,4-CH2P(1-Ad) 2-C6H4, and 2-PCy2,2′ -OH-biphenyl, and 2-PtBu2,2′-OH-biphenyl were covalently bonded to 2000 Dalton MeOPEG-OH. The catalysts, which were formed in situ from Na2[PdCl4], the respective polymeric phosphine, KF/K 3PO4, and PhB(OH)2, efficiently couple aryl chlorides at 80°C at 0.5 mol% loading, resulting in a > 90% yield of the respective biphenyl derivatives. The use of polar phase tags allows the efficient recovery of palladium-phosphine catalysts by simple phase separation of the catalyst-containing DMSO solution and the product-containing n-heptane phase. The high activity (TOF) of the catalyst remains almost constant over more than five reaction cycles, which involve the catalytic reaction, separation of the product phase from the catalyst phase, and addition of new reactants to initiate the next cycle. The Buchwald type biphenyl phosphines form the most active Pd catalysts, which are 1.3-2.8 times more active than catalysts derived from diadamantyl-benzylphosphine, but appear to be less robust in the recycling experiments. There is no apparent leaching of the catalyst into the heptane solution ( 0.05%), as evidenced by spectrophotometric measurements, and contamination of the product with Pd is avoided.

Studies on Pd/NiFe2O4 catalyzed ligand-free Suzuki reaction in aqueous phase: Synthesis of biaryls, terphenyls and polyaryls

Palladium supported on nickel ferrite (Pd/NiF2O4) was found to be a highly active catalyst for the Suzuki coupling reaction between various aryl halides and arylboronic acids. The reaction gave excellent yields (70-98%) under ligand free conditions in a 1:1 DMF/H2O solvent mixture, in short reaction times (10-60 min). The catalyst could be recovered easily by applying an external magnetic field. The polyaryls were similarly synthesized.

Identification and Optimization of Novel Small-Molecule Cas9 Inhibitors by Cell-Based High-Throughput Screening

CRISPR/Cas9 has revolutionized several areas of life science; however, methods to control the Cas9 activity are needed for both scientific and therapeutic applications. Anti-CRISPR proteins are known to inhibit the CRISPR/Cas adaptive immunity; however, in vivo delivery of such proteins is problematic. Instead, small-molecule Cas9 inhibitors could serve as useful tools due to their permeable, proteolytically stable, and non-immunogenic nature. Here, we identified a small-molecule ligand with anti-CRISPR/Cas9 activity through a high-throughput screening utilizing an Escherichia coli selection system. Extensive structure-activity relationship studies, which involved a deconstruction-reconstruction strategy, resulted in a range of analogues with significant improvements in the inhibitory activity. Based on NMR and electrophoretic mobility shift assays, we propose that the inhibitory action of these compounds likely results from direct binding to apo-Cas9, preventing Cas9:gRNA complex formation. These molecules may find use as Cas9 modulators in various applications.

4-Alkyl-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione analogues as metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors

In Gram-negative bacteria, the major mechanism of resistance to β-lactam antibiotics is the production of one or several β-lactamases (BLs), including the highly worrying carbapenemases. Whereas inhibitors of these enzymes were recently marketed, they only target serine-carbapenemases (e.g. KPC-type), and no clinically useful inhibitor is available yet to neutralize the class of metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs). We are developing compounds based on the 1,2,4-triazole-3-thione scaffold, which binds to the di-zinc catalytic site of MBLs in an original fashion, and we previously reported its promising potential to yield broad-spectrum inhibitors. However, up to now only moderate antibiotic potentiation could be observed in microbiological assays and further exploration was needed to improve outer membrane penetration. Here, we synthesized and characterized a series of compounds possessing a diversely functionalized alkyl chain at the 4-position of the heterocycle. We found that the presence of a carboxylic group at the extremity of an alkyl chain yielded potent inhibitors of VIM-type enzymes with Ki values in the μM to sub-μM range, and that this alkyl chain had to be longer or equal to a propyl chain. This result confirmed the importance of a carboxylic function on the 4-substituent of 1,2,4-triazole-3-thione heterocycle. As observed in previous series, active compounds also preferentially contained phenyl, 2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl, naphth-2-yl or m-biphenyl at position 5. However, none efficiently inhibited NDM-1 or IMP-1. Microbiological study on VIM-2-producing E. coli strains and on VIM-1/VIM-4-producing multidrug-resistant K. pneumoniae clinical isolates gave promising results, suggesting that the 1,2,4-triazole-3-thione scaffold worth continuing exploration to further improve penetration. Finally, docking experiments were performed to study the binding mode of alkanoic analogues in the active site of VIM-2.

1,2,4-Triazole-3-thione compounds with a 4-ethyl alkyl/aryl sulfide substituent are broad-spectrum metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors with re-sensitization activity

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) are important contributors of Gram-negative bacteria resistance to β-lactam antibiotics. MBLs are highly worrying because of their carbapenemase activity, their rapid spread in major human opportunistic pathogens while no clinically useful inhibitor is available yet. In this context, we are exploring the potential of compounds based on the 1,2,4-triazole-3-thione scaffold as an original ligand of the di-zinc active sites of MBLs, and diversely substituted at its positions 4 and 5. Here, we present a new series of compounds substituted at the 4-position by a thioether-containing alkyl chain with a carboxylic and/or an aryl group at its extremity. Several compounds showed broad-spectrum inhibition with Ki values in the μM to sub-μM range against VIM-type enzymes, NDM-1 and IMP-1. The presence of the sulfur and of the aryl group was important for the inhibitory activity and the binding mode of a few compounds in VIM-2 was revealed by X-ray crystallography. Importantly, in vitro antibacterial susceptibility assays showed that several inhibitors were able to potentiate the activity of meropenem on Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates producing VIM-1 or VIM-4, with a potentiation effect of up to 16-fold. Finally, a selected compound was found to only moderately inhibit the di-zinc human glyoxalase II, and several showed no or only moderate toxicity toward several human cells, thus favourably completing a promising behaviour.

Structure-activity relationship studies for the development of inhibitors of murine adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL)

High serum fatty acid (FA) levels are causally linked to the development of insulin resistance, which eventually progresses to type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) generalized in the term metabolic syndrome. Adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) is the initial enzyme in the hydrolysis of intracellular triacylglycerol (TG) stores, liberating fatty acids that are released from adipocytes into the circulation. Hence, ATGL-specific inhibitors have the potential to lower circulating FA concentrations, and counteract the development of insulin resistance and NAFLD. In this article, we report about structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies of small molecule inhibitors of murine ATGL which led to the development of Atglistatin. Atglistatin is a specific inhibitor of murine ATGL, which has proven useful for the validation of ATGL as a potential drug target.

4-Amino-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione-derived Schiff bases as metallo-β-lactamase inhibitors

Resistance to β-lactam antibiotics in Gram-negatives producing metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) represents a major medical threat and there is an extremely urgent need to develop clinically useful inhibitors. We previously reported the original binding mode of 5-substituted-4-amino/H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione compounds in the catalytic site of an MBL. Moreover, we showed that, although moderately potent, they represented a promising basis for the development of broad-spectrum MBL inhibitors. Here, we synthesized and characterized a large number of 4-amino-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione-derived Schiff bases. Compared to the previous series, the presence of an aryl moiety at position 4 afforded an average 10-fold increase in potency. Among 90 synthetic compounds, more than half inhibited at least one of the six tested MBLs (L1, VIM-4, VIM-2, NDM-1, IMP-1, CphA) with Ki values in the μM to sub-μM range. Several were broad-spectrum inhibitors, also inhibiting the most clinically relevant VIM-2 and NDM-1. Active compounds generally contained halogenated, bicyclic aryl or phenolic moieties at position 5, and one substituent among o-benzoic, 2,4-dihydroxyphenyl, p-benzyloxyphenyl or 3-(m-benzoyl)-phenyl at position 4. The crystallographic structure of VIM-2 in complex with an inhibitor showed the expected binding between the triazole-thione moiety and the dinuclear centre and also revealed a network of interactions involving Phe61, Tyr67, Trp87 and the conserved Asn233. Microbiological analysis suggested that the potentiation activity of the compounds was limited by poor outer membrane penetration or efflux. This was supported by the ability of one compound to restore the susceptibility of an NDM-1-producing E. coli clinical strain toward several β-lactams in the presence only of a sub-inhibitory concentration of colistin, a permeabilizing agent. Finally, some compounds were tested against the structurally similar di-zinc human glyoxalase II and found weaker inhibitors of the latter enzyme, thus showing a promising selectivity towards MBLs.

Base-free Pd-MOF catalyzed the Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reaction of arenediazonium tetrafluoroborate salts with arylboronic acids

A convenient and environmental benign synthesis of biaryls has been demonstrated by a straightforward reaction catalyzed by the palladium-containing metal-organic framework (Pd-MOF) [Pd (2-pymo)2]n (2-pymo = 2-pyrimidinolate). A series of functionalized biaryl derivatives have been synthesized in good to excellent yields by the Suzuki-miyaura cross-couplings of sustainable arenediazonium salts with a variety of arylboronic acids and the reactions were catalyzed by the Pd-MOF using methanol as a benign solvent. Those base- and additive-free catalytic reactions proceeded smoothly under non-anhydrous and non-degassed condition. Such transformation avoided high reaction temperature, tolerated many functional groups and presented a wide substrate scope. The catalyst could be recovered by filtration and reused for four successive cycles before collapse of the MOF structure.

Electron-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling of Arylboron Compounds with Aryl Iodides

Arylboroxines in combination with zinc chloride and potassium tert-butoxide were found to undergo the electron-catalyzed cross-coupling with aryl iodides to give the corresponding biaryls without the aid of transition-metal catalysis.

1,2,4-Triazole-3-thione Compounds as Inhibitors of Dizinc Metallo-β-lactamases

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) cause resistance of Gram-negative bacteria to β-lactam antibiotics and are of serious concern, because they can inactivate the last-resort carbapenems and because MBL inhibitors of clinical value are still lacking. We previously identified the original binding mode of 4-amino-2,4-dihydro-5-(2-methylphenyl)-3H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione (compound IIIA) within the dizinc active site of the L1 MBL. Herein we present the crystallographic structure of a complex of L1 with the corresponding non-amino compound IIIB (1,2-dihydro-5-(2-methylphenyl)-3H-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione). Unexpectedly, the binding mode of IIIB was similar but reverse to that of IIIA. The 3 D structures suggested that the triazole–thione scaffold was suitable to bind to the catalytic site of dizinc metalloenzymes. On the basis of these results, we synthesized 54 analogues of IIIA or IIIB. Nineteen showed IC50 values in the micromolar range toward at least one of five representative MBLs (i.e., L1, VIM-4, VIM-2, NDM-1, and IMP-1). Five of these exhibited a significant inhibition of at least four enzymes, including NDM-1, VIM-2, and IMP-1. Active compounds mainly featured either halogen or bulky bicyclic aryl substituents. Finally, some compounds were also tested on several microbial dinuclear zinc-dependent hydrolases belonging to the MBL-fold superfamily (i.e., endonucleases and glyoxalase II) to explore their activity toward structurally similar but functionally distinct enzymes. Whereas the bacterial tRNases were not inhibited, the best IC50 values toward plasmodial glyoxalase II were in the 10 μm range.