Design and implementation of a highly selective minimal self-replicating system

Article abstract of DOI:10.1002/anie.200601845

Self-direction: A rationally designed self-complementary template (see picture) is capable of replication, thereby amplifying itself from a reaction mixture to the exclusion of its diastereomer. This approach allows a highly selective amplification by foc

Full text of DOI:10.1002/anie.200601845

Communications
Template Synthesis
DOI: 10.1002/anie.200601845
Design and Implementation of a Highly Selective
Minimal Self-Replicating System**
Eleftherios Kassianidis and Douglas Philp*
The development and deployment of self-replicating[1] molec-
ular architectures[2] can potentially revolutionize the fabrica-
tion of materials on the nanometer scale. The emergence of
protocols based on molecular replication will deliver syn-
thetic machinery[3] that is capable of directing its own
synthesis and cooperating with other similar systems to
create an organized hierarchy. Within this broad objective,
the development of efficient protocols that allow self-
replication, self-organization, and evolution[4] within synthetic
supramolecular assemblies is essential. This approach to
predetermined dynamic behavior has been termed “systems
chemistry” by von Kiedrowski and co-workers.[5] Ultimately,
we wish to exploit replicating systems in the construction,
selection,[6] and amplification[7] of large molecular and
supramolecular assemblies.
Figure 1. The minimal model of self-replication: Reagents A and B can
react through three pathways: a) An uncatalyzed bimolecular reaction
between A and B to give template T; b) a recognition-mediated
reaction through the binary complex A·B; c) a recognition-mediated
autocatalytic cycle through the ternary complex A·B·T.
In the context of our long-term goals, we must demon-
strate that it is possible to exploit replication to amplify a
single structure from a mixture based on its ability to guide its
own formation through recognition processes, even when
inherently unselective chemical reactions are used to cova-
lently link the building blocks together. The reaction between
an N-aryl nitrone and a maleimide is suitable for incorpo-
ration in a modular self-replicating system. The reaction
proceeds readily at room temperature, and the rate and
diastereoselectivity are almost immune to electronic substitu-
ent effects and adventitious catalysis by Brønsted acids. The
two products (endo and exo) provide the means of exposing
the efficiency of information transfer in any replicating
system as the reaction is metronomic: the endo/exo ratio is
always close to 3:1 in the absence of effects that arise from
molecular recognition. Previous studies by us[12] demon-
strated that this reaction can be incorporated into a replicat-
ing system, but that the levels of amplification achieved are
poor.
We wished to develop a general protocol for optimizing
the performance of replicating systems based on computa-
tional methods. Therefore, we identified 1 and 2 (Scheme 1)
as suitable precursors for a successful replicating template by
screening[13] a series of compounds computationally. We
performed electronic structure calculations (see the Support-
ing Information for details) at the B3LYP/6-31G(d) level of
theory on the two diastereoisomers endo-3 and exo-3 and the
duplex endo-3·endo-3. These calculated structures reveal that
endo-3 has an open structure in which the two recognition
sites are freely available to interact with other complementary
species in solution (T in Figure 1). By contrast, the structure
of exo-3 is folded such that the recognition sites are placed in
proximity to each other, thus rendering this product inert in a
catalytic sense (Tinactive in Figure 1). Additionally, the calcu-
lated structure of the endo-3·endo-3 duplex reveals a head-to-
tail dimer whose assembly is driven by the self-complement-
arity of the template. We therefore expected that the endo-3
template should accommodate the transition state that leads
The minimal self-replicator model[8] (Figure 1) provides
the framework for our studies. Paul and Joyce highlighted[9]
three parameters within this model that must be optimized to
ensure an efficient system: minimization of product inhibition
arising from a stable T·T complex; the suppression of the
reaction[10] through A·B to form Tinactive, which is inert
catalytically; and the catalytic efficiency within the key
ternary complex A·B·T. Under ideal conditions, template T
presents its recognition sites in the correct orientation,
assembles A and B, and then connects these two molecules
to form an exact copy of itself by transmitting structural
information to the forming template. This process completes
an autocatalytic cycle. It is useful to recognize that, unlike
traditional catalysts, there is no requirement for T to achieve
particularly high turnover numbers as the inherently non-
linear kinetics should achieve amplification of the template
once autocatalysis has become established. Additionally, as
long as the duplex T·T is not excessively stable, propagation of
the template T is exponential. Despite concerted efforts, there
are relatively few reports of synthetic self-replicating sys-
tems.[5,11]
[*] Dr. E. Kassianidis, Dr. D. Philp
EaStCHEM and Centre for Biomolecular Sciences
University of St Andrews
North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY169ST (UK)
Fax: (+44)1334-463-808
E-mail: d.philp@st-andrews.ac.uk
[**] We thank the University of St Andrews and the EPSRC for financial
support. We are grateful to Caroline Horsburgh (mass spectro-
metry) and Melanja Smith (NMR spectroscopy) for technical
assistance. We thank Prof G. von Kiedrowski for providingus with a
copy of his SimFit program.
Supportinginformation for this article is available on the WWW
under http://www.angewandte.org or from the author.
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Chemie
Accordingly, we undertook a detailed
kinetic analysis to demonstrate that the
effects mediated by molecular recognition
were indeed a result of the designed
replication of endo-3. In the following
discussion, we focus on the results
obtained at À108C, as this temperature
was the most convenient for measuring
the reaction kinetics. The measured max-
imum rates[15] of reaction are summarized
in Table 1. It is clear from these data that
the bimolecular reaction between 1 and 4
(Table 1, entry 1) is slow and unselective.
By contrast, the measured rates change
significantly (Table 1, entry 2) when rec-
ognition is allowed to play a role in the
reaction: the formation of endo-3 is accel-
erated 13-fold. The small rate enhance-
Scheme 1. Nitrone 1 and maleimide 2 can react to form two diastereoisomeric cycloadducts
exo-3 (an open template) and endo-3 (a closed template). Schematic representations from
Figure 1 are included to highlight the role of these components in the design of the replicating
system.
Table 1: Maximum observed rates of reaction.[a]
to endo-3 readily. This expectation proved correct: Calcula-
tions revealed the transition state 1·2·endo-3° was readily
accessible and similar in geometry to that calculated for the
bimolecular reaction. In summary, our computational studies
indicate that the formation of endo-3 by reaction through a
binary complex is impossible; however, endo-3 should be
capable of templating its own formation from nitrone 1 and
maleimide 2 through the transition state 1·2·endo-3°. Our
expectation was therefore that we had designed a synthetic
system that should be capable of amplifying endo-3 over exo-3
through autocatalysis.
Entry
Conditions
Maximum
rate [nmsÀ1
]
endo-3
exo-3
1
2
3
[1]=[4]=25 mm
[1]=[2]=25 mm
[1]=[2]=25 mm
[benzoic acid]=50 mm
[1]=[2]=25 mm
[endo-3]=2.5 mm
39
528
105
13
21
17
4
561
<1
1
[a] Maximum rates measured in CDCl3 at À108C by H NMR spectro-
Template precursors 1 and 2, together with the control
compound 4, in which the carboxylic acid recognition site is
blocked, were synthesized by using standard methods. The
kinetic behavior of the system was studied by measuring the
kinetics of the reaction between 1 and 2 (or 4) in a solution of
CDCl3 at various temperatures between À10 and 358C. The
time course of the reactions was evaluated by 1H NMR
spectroscopic analysis (500 MHz), which monitored the
disappearance of the resonance that arises from the malei-
mide protons present in 2 (or 4) in the region d = 6.70–
7.00 ppm and the simultaneous appearance of resonances that
arise from the endo and exo cycloadducts in the region d =
3.60–5.80 ppm. Profiles of concentration versus time for the
formation of the two cycloadducts were constructed by
deconvolution of these resonances. No decomposition or
additional reaction products were detected in any of the
experiments and the reaction was shown to be under kinetic
control.[14] Experiments conducted at starting concentrations
of 1 and 2 of 25 mm in CDCl3 revealed that the recognition-
mediated reactions were uniformly fast, reaching more than
85% overall conversion ([endo] + [exo]) at all temperatures
after 16 h, and, in all cases, the diastereoselectivity was
greater than 33:1 in favor of endo-3. By contrast, in the
control reaction between 1 and 4, in which recognition cannot
play a role, overall conversion after 16 h was around 30% at
358C and only 9% at À108C and, in all cases, the diastereo-
selectivity was only 3:1 in favor of endo-3. Clearly, the
presence of recognition has a dramatic effect in this system.
scopic analysis.
ment in the formation of exo-3 is consistent with the
computational results that indicate that reaction through a
very weak binary complex may be possible. The rate
enhancement in the formation of endo-3 coupled with the
observation of a sigmoidal rate profile (Figure 2), character-
istic of autocatalysis, warranted further investigation. The role
of hydrogen bonding in the formation of endo-3 and exo-3
could be demonstrated readily by the introduction of a
competitive inhibitor. The association between 2 and any
amidopyridine-bearing species present in the reaction mix-
ture, including the template endo-3, can be disrupted through
the addition of two equivalents of benzoic acid. Reaction
between 1 and 2 in the presence of benzoic acid ([benzoic
acid] = 50 mm) results in a significant decrease both in the
rate of reaction and the diastereoselectivity (Table 1, entry 3).
The final endo/exo ratio drops from 115:1 to only 17:1. These
results demonstrate that the formation of endo-3 is recog-
nition-mediated.
A crucial experiment is the demonstration that endo-3 is
capable of accelerating its own formation. The injection of
substoichiometric amounts of endo-3 at the start of the
reaction between 1 and 2 should result in an increase in the
initial rate of formation of endo-3. Accordingly, we performed
the reaction between 1 and 2 under identical conditions to
those described previously, however, the reaction mixture
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an initial condition at which 1 = 0.1 results in the system
operating at the limit of its autocatalytic capacity from the
start of the reaction. Indeed, exposure of reaction mixtures
consisting of 1 and 2 to increasing initial concentrations of
preformed endo-3 (up to 7.5 mm or 30 mol%) results in rate
profiles identical to those obtained when only 10 mol% of
preformed endo-3 is added, thus adding more template has no
effect because the system is already operating at the limit of
its autocatalytic capacity.
Ideally, to completely eradicate the formation of exo-3
within this system, we must ensure that the contributions from
the background bimolecular and binary complex modes of
reactivity are removed. This objective cannot be achieved in
this system by template injection. However, this goal can be
accomplished by reducing the concentration of the reagents at
the start of the reaction. Thus, employing initial concentra-
tions of 1 and 2 of 15 mm results in an endo-3/exo-3 ratio of
135:1, and employing initial concentrations of 1 and 2 of 5 mm
results in an endo-3/exo-3 ratio of more than 250:1; the
concentration of exo-3 is now below our limit of detection. On
the basis of all of these observations, we believe that the
formation of endo-3 occurs principally through the iterative
operation of an autocatalytic, self-replication cycle, which
revolves around the assembly of the hydrogen-bonded
ternary complex 1·2·endo-3. In accordance with our electronic
structure calculations, this assembly is capable of guiding the
reaction of the nitrone and maleimide solely through the endo
transition state, thereby allowing endo-3 to create a new copy
of itself.
^
Figure 2. Variation of reaction rate for the formation of endo-3 ( , right
axis) with time. The formation of the endo diastereoisomer in the
control reaction between 1 and 4 is shown for comparison ( , right
axis). Experimental concentration–time data for endo-3 (c, left axis)
^
is also shown for comparison.
also contained 10 mol% of endo-3. The results of this
experiment confirm the ability of endo-3 to template its
own formation (Table 1, entry 4). The maximum rate of
formation of endo-3 is now 14 times faster than the control
and, pleasingly, almost exactly that observed for the reaction
in the absence of the preformed template. This observation
suggests that the maximum autocatalytic rate is reached
immediately (t = 0) on addition of this small amount of
template. The endo/exo ratio is now at least 250:1,[16]
compared with 115:1 in the absence of added endo-3. By
contrast, the addition of 10 mol% of exo-3 to the reaction
mixture has no effect on the rate profile. From these
observations, we conclude that the exo-3 cycloadduct is
completely incapable of competing with the efficient replica-
tion profile of endo-3. Therefore, it is this template that is
amplified selectively through its monopolization of the
precursors 1 and 2.
We probed the stability of the endo-3·endo-3 duplex to
understand the apparent efficiency of autocatalysis in this
system fully. The association constant (Ka) for the formation
of the complex 1·phenylacetic acid, a model for the binary
associations in the system, was determined to be 1150mÀ1 at
1
À108C in CDCl3 by using H NMR titration methodology.
Assuming simple additivity of interactions, we might there-
fore expect the endo-3·endo-3 duplex to have an association
constant in the region of 1.3 ” 106 mÀ1 [17]
We were unable,
.
however, to directly measure the stability of the endo-3·endo-
3 duplex by 1H NMR (500 MHz) dilution experiments as the
1H NMR spectrum of endo-3 showed no apparent depend-
ence on concentration (100 mm < [endo-3] < 25 mm) at À108C
in CDCl3). However, given the kinetic data, we reasoned that
it should be possible to verify the relative stability of the endo-
3·endo-3 duplex through the simulation and fitting of the
experimental datasets to an appropriate kinetic model (full
details of this procedure are given in the Supporting
Information). Our kinetic model requires that exo-3 is
formed exclusively through the bimolecular reaction channel
and that endo-3 is formed through the confluence of the
bimolecular pathway and the autocatalytic self-replicating
pathway. Estimates of the rate constant for the bimolecular
reaction between 1 and 2 to form exo-3 and endo-3 were
derived from experimental data for the reaction between 1
and methyl ester 4 and were used to describe all bimolecular
processes that lead to the exo and endo cycloadducts,
respectively. The association constant (Ka = 1150mÀ1) for the
complex 1·phenylacetic acid was used as a model for all binary
complexes and the product complexes exo-3·exo-3 and exo-
The curve for the reaction rate versus time (Figure 2)
confirms the autocatalytic behavior of endo-3, thus revealing
that the reaction rate steadily increases, reaches a maximum,
and then falls away. It is evident from Figure 2 that the
maximal autocatalytic velocity is achieved at around five
hours after the start of the reaction at a template concen-
tration of around 7 mm. In fact, the maximum autocatalytic
velocity is achieved in the time region in which 0.1 < 1 < 1.0,
where 1 = [template]/[precursors]. For our system, this region
lies between 150 and 500 minutes, which corresponds to a
concentration of endo-3 between 2.5 and 12.5 mm. It is clear
from this analysis of the kinetic data that autocatalyst
saturation occurs at t ꢀ 10000 s. The continuous increase of
[endo-3] (and in turn the 1 value) during the course of the
reaction does not increase reaction velocity further: within
the concentration range 2.5–12.5 mm for endo-3, only a
further 6% increase in reaction velocity is observed, whereas
reaction velocity is considerably diminished at 1 = 1.0 and
beyond. These considerations explain the result of the
template-injection experiment described above: employing
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3·endo-3. By using these fixed parameters and simplex
optimization of the association constant for endo-3·endo-3
and the rate constant for the reaction in the ternary complex
1·2·endo-3 to form endo-3·endo-3, excellent fits of the
experimental data to this model were obtained (R = 0.74%;
see the Supporting Information for details). The optimized
value of the association constant for [endo-3·endo-3] is 4.7 ”
106 mÀ1, close to our original estimate. The optimized rate
constant for the formation of endo-3 within ternary complex
[1·2·endo-3] is 1.22 ” 10À3 sÀ1, which corresponds to an effec-
tive molarity of just over 20m.
It is clear from the results of the kinetic simulation and
fitting of the experimental data that the major pathway for the
formation of exo-3 is simply the bimolecular reaction between
1 and 2. The dominant pathway for the formation of endo-3 is
clearly a reaction through the ternary complex 1·2·endo-3,
which has a rather high effective molarity ( ꢀ 23m) for such a
simple system.[18] The 1·2·endo-3 complex drives the forma-
tion of endo-3 almost exclusively, and the observed maximum
rate at around 20000 s (Figure 2) corresponds to the max-
imum concentration of 1·2·endo-3 (420 mm). The interplay
between this catalytic prowess and the high stability of the
endo-3·endo-3 duplex is intriguing. Despite the fact that the
concentration of free endo-3 never rises above 5 mm during
the reaction, this structure is still capable of amplifying itself
effectively to the exclusion of exo-3. The simulation and
fitting of the data allows us to explore the effect of the
stability of the endo-3·endo-3 duplex on the rate profile of the
system. The calculated reaction profile is altered dramatically
by a modest reduction in the association constant for endo-
3·endo-3 from 106 to 105 mÀ1. This change results in the curve
of rate versus time becoming sharper and the maximum rate
of formation of endo-3 increasing. Although we cannot test
this hypothesis directly at À108C, increasing the temper-
ature[19] will lower the Ka value for endo-3·endo-3, and the
expected effect on the curve of rate versus time is evident as
we increase the reaction temperature from À10 to 108C
(Figure 3).
Although conceptually simple, minimal self-replicating
systems should require the optimization of the rate acceler-
ation, or effective molarity, achieved by the ternary complex,
the stability of the ternary complex, and the instability of the
product duplex for efficient operation. We have demonstrated
herein that it is possible to selectively amplify one of two
possible products from a reaction mixture using a replication
strategy in which only the first of these three parameters has
been highly optimized through the logical application of
computational methods. Therefore, although the stability of
the catalytic ternary complex and product duplex are
important, it is nevertheless possible to design and implement
a synthetic system that is capable of highly selective
amplification by focusing on templates that possess a high
level of complementarity to transition states. We believe that
the development of new replicating systems can be driven by
aggressive optimization of the approach described herein.
Received: May 10, 2006
Revised: June 11, 2006
Published online: August 28, 2006
Keywords: kinetics · molecular modeling· self-replication ·
supramolecular chemistry · template synthesis
.
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[11] Some recent examples include: a) E. Kassianidis; R. J. Pearson,
D. Philp, Chem. Eur. J., 10.1002/chem.200600460; b) R. J.
Pearson, E. Kassianidis, A. M. Z. Slawin, D. Philp, Chem. Eur.
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Kassianidis, A. M. Z. Slawin, D. Philp, Org. Biomol. Chem.
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[13] We screened a series of compounds in which ortho-, meta-, or
para-disubstituted benzene rings connected the recognition sites
to the reactive sites in both the nitrone and the maleimide
building blocks of the prospective template. We calculated
(AMBER* forcefield, GB/SA CHCl3 solvation model, Macro-
model, version 7.1, Schrodinger Inc., USA, 2000) the minimum
energy conformations of the both the endo and exo cycloadducts
from all of the possible combinations of these six building blocks.
Of the possible cycloadducts, only one combination, endo-3 from
the reaction between 1 with 2, had the desired open template
structure required for replication and warranted further inves-
tigation.
[14] The ratio of endo-3 and exo-3 did not change upon heating the
reaction mixtures to 608C; additionally, heating endo-3 and exo-
3 with N-phenylmaleimide did not result in any crossover
products being formed. These results suggest that no thermody-
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