Liquid missile propellants in the former Soviet Union

Article abstract of DOI:10.1016/S0269-7491(98)00224-3

The liquid missile propellant unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) is a very toxic and persistent organic chemical that was widely used in the missile industry of the former Soviet Union. Only in the last few years have Russian authorities acknowledged the dangers of this fuel to people and nature. To date, little has been done for the transition towards fuels with a lower toxicity. This paper describes the chemical nature of UDMH, and considers its potential impacts on nature and human health. Copyright (C) 1999 ElsevierScience Ltd. All rights reserved.

Full text of DOI:10.1016/S0269-7491(98)00224-3

ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
Environmental Pollution 105 (1999) 157±161
Commentary
Liquid missile propellants in the former Soviet Union
L.A. Fedorov*
Union for Chemical Safety, 8-2-83 Profsojuznaja Str., 117292 Moscow, Russia
Received 27 August 1998; accepted 2 December 1998
Abstract
The liquid missile propellant unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) is a very toxic and persistent organic chemical that was
widely used in the missile industry of the former Soviet Union. Only in the last few years have Russian authorities acknowledged
the dangers of this fuel to people and nature. To date, little has been done for the transition towards fuels with a lower toxicity. This
paper describes the chemical nature of UDMH, and considers its potential impacts on nature and human health. # 1999 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Russia; Propellants; Missile's toxics; Ecology; Health
1. Chemical properties
serious ecological and human health impacts. Three
stage missiles (Tsyklon-3) using UDMH propellant
have been launched from Soviet and Russian cosmo-
dromes (space centers) over 100 times between 1977 and
1997. Two stage missiles (Kosmos-3M) have been laun-
ched 416 times (391 successful) between 1967 and 1997,
and there have been 214 launches (187 successful) of the
three and four stage Proton missiles between 1967 and
1997.
A large number of ballistic missiles have been kept on
`battle watch' for decades, with long-term holding of
UDMH. Twenty-six stationary SS-11 missiles were kept
for many years in Teykovo, and 140 SS-11 missiles
presently are located near the cities of Yasnaja and
Drovjanaja. Two groups of missiles are located in
Uzhur and near Krasnoyarsk. The ®rst group
contains 64 heavy SS-18 missiles, and the second
group contains 40 SS-11 missiles. Over 400 stationary
ballistic missiles are located in other regions of Russia.
A large number of mobile ballistic missiles also exist,
primarily on railway platforms; these also contain
UDMH.
The liquid missile propellant unsymmetrical di-
methylhydrazine (UDMH) has the chemical structure
(CH3)2N-NH2. It is colorless, transparent, and has a
strong odor that is characteristic of amines. The boiling
temperature is approximately 63ꢀC. UDMH is hydro-
philic, and mixes well with petroleum, alcohol and many
other organic solvents. UDMH also is e€ectively ad-
sorbed by various surfaces.
UDMH is readily oxidized, forming the compounds
dimethylnitrosoamine {(CH3)2N-N=O}, tetramethyl-
tetrazene {(CH3)2N-N=N-N(CH3)2}, dimethylamine,
methylenedimethylhydrazine {(CH3)2N-N=CH2} and
formaldehyde.
2. Use of UDMH in the former Soviet Union
UDMH and other liquid propellants were used by the
former Soviet Union for several decades in various
types of missiles, including ballistic, space, marine and
air defense. UDMH was the most widely used fuel,
and is still in use in Russia.
Multi-stage space missiles are a serious concern
because they drop ®rst and second stage vehicles, con-
taining various quantities of unused propellant, to the
surface of the earth. At impact sites, there may be
Fifty-two SS-18 missiles that were deployed for 30
years in Kazakhstan were transported to the Nizhniy
Novgorod region in 1995±96 and destroyed. A total of
6000 metric tons of UDMH was transported to Russia
for disposal. During the same period, 130 SS-19 missiles
were transported to Russia from the Ukraine. The fate
of the UDMH contained in those missiles (about 4000
metric tons) is unknown.
* E-mail: lefed@glasnet.ru.
0269-7491/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0269-7491(98)00224-3

158
L.A. Fedorov / Environmental Pollution 105 (1999) 157±161
A large number of `air defense missiles' (SA-2 class)
Analysis of ecosystems (unpublished data) at sites
of fall of the ®rst stages of Tsyklon-3, Kosmos-3M,
and Proton space missiles have revealed vast territories
polluted by the toxic propellant and it metabolites.
The chemicals were found in vegetation, soil and
sediments, subsoil and surface waters, at concentra-
tions far in excess of those permissible according to
the Russian hygienic standards. There also exits the
possibility of long-range atmospheric transport of
UDMH aerosols from falling stages of missiles.
Those aerosols could a€ect natural ecosystems, crop
plants, agricultural animals and humans at depositional
sites.
There currently are 110 locations across the former
Soviet Union where the separated stages of ballistic
space missiles are permitted to fall. The total a€ected
land area is approximately 20 million hectares. Loca-
tions occur in many regions of Russia, including
the republics (Altaii, Komi, Sakha-Yacutia, Tuva,
Khakassia), krays (Altaii, Krasnoyarsk), oblasts (Amur,
Arkhangelsk, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Tyumen)
and autonomous okrugs (Nenetz, Yamalo-Nenetz).
Overland places of fall also exist in some new indepen-
dent states (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan).
There also are 12 sea locations of fall, covering an area
of approximately 9 million hectares. The following are
examples that provide information regarding typical
levels of impact.
were stored for many years with UDMH propellant;
many of these missiles have been disposed of in various
locations across the former Soviet Union.
Marine ballistic missiles (RSM-25, RSM-40, RSM-
50, RSM-45 class) occur on submarines based in the
northern and Paci®c ¯eets of the Russian navy.
Numerous missiles containing UDMH have been stored
for years at naval bases of the Northern and Paci®c
¯eets (Yagelnaya, Olenya, Ostrovnoy, Rybachiy,
Pavlovskoye).
Production plants for UDMH occur in Salavat (in the
Bushkir Republic) and Angarsk (in the Irkutsk oblast),
in the vicinity of substantial human populations.
3. Human toxicology
UDMH is considered to be a highly toxic compound.
Russian hygienic standards for UDMH are as follows:
1. air (work place limit)Ð0.1 mg/m3;
2. air (general population limit)Ð0.001 mg/m3;
3. water (®shing/economic reservoirs)Ð0.0005 mg/l;
4. water (other reservoirs)Ð0.02 mg/l; and
5. soilÐ0.1 mg/kg.
Transformation products of UDMH, especially nitro-
sodimethylamine and tetramethyltetrazene, are also
highly toxic. The former chemical is a known carcino-
gen. The acute toxicity of UDMH to humans is six times
greater than hydrocyanic acid (oral LD50=50±200 mg/
kg). UDMH is most dangerous when it is inhaled into
the respiratory tract. However, it also may enter the body
via the digestive system, skin, or at mucous membranes.
UDMH causes various diseases in humans, especially
among children. The clinical course of a poisoning
depends on the mode of entrance to the body, dosage
rate and duration of exposure. Acute poisonings gen-
erally manifest themselves with symptoms of central
nervous system lesions (i.e. convulsions) and in a smal-
ler number of cases, lesions of the liver. UDMH can
also cause lesions in the digestive tract, irritation of the
eyes, mucous membranes, and the respiratory system.
Symptoms vary from mild nausea to heavy bronchial
spasms.
The theoretical area of fall for the ®rst stages of
Kosmos-3M missiles launched from cosmodrome
Plesetsk includes 63,000 hectares in the Republic Komi
and 63,000 hecatres in Nenetz autonomous okrug. In
Republic Komi it is mainly the Udorskii area (upper
reaches of the River Vashka) that is impacted. The line
of these missiles passes above unique ship-pine eco-
systems, included the Verkhnevashka forest reserve.
First stages of Proton missles, launched from cosmo-
drome Baikonur, may fall on 646,000 hectares in the
Dzhezkazgan oblast (Kazakhstan). National regions of
Russia (Altaii Republic, Khakassia Republic, Tuva
Republic) are intended for impact of the second stages
of these missiles.
During 1995±97 alone, ten Kosmos-3M missiles were
launched from cosmodrome Plesetsk, and an estimated
quantity of 6667 kg of UDMH reached the land surface.
This is a tremendous load of toxic material for a rela-
tively small area. Since 1967, the Republic Komi and
the Nenetz autonomous okrug have been impacted by
approximately 400 stages of Kosmos-3M, and approxi-
mately 300 metric tons of UDMH. Since 1977 the
territory of Mezenskii (Arkhangelsk oblast) has been
impacted by over 100 stages of Tsyklon-3, containing
more than 60 metric tons of UDMH.
With chronic poisonings, lesions of the liver prevail,
although there may also be impacts on other body
systems (e.g. the central nervous, cardiovascular,
hemopoietic and urogenital systems).
4. Potential ecological impacts
When UDMH is deposited in a region, the chemical
is capable of migration, and is stable in deep layers of
ground and plants. In soil, UDMH can move over dis-
The use of UDMH as a liquid missile propellant may
have large, but little studied, ecological consequences.

L.A. Fedorov / Environmental Pollution 105 (1999) 157±161
159
and ®sh-breeders, hunters, miners), is unknown,
but potentially great; and
tances of more than 60±200 m. Stability of UDMH in
soils depends on natural conditions. Northern regions,
which are located in arctic and sub-arctic climatic
zones (Arkhangelsk oblast, Republic Komi), may have
a weak ability to self-decontaminate. Research at
polluted northern sites, from 5 to 23 years post-
impact, has shown that a reduction of UDMH con-
centration to a level of 1±2 times the Russian hygienic
standard takes more than 20 years. In regions of
missile stage fall associated with the southern cosmo-
drome Kapustin Yar, reductions of UDMH con-
centration were two-fold after 1 year, four-fold after 5
years, and 10±20-fold after only 10 years (Russian
State Report, 1996).
5. the negative impacts of launched missiles (includ-
ing the chemical pollution of soils and vegetation)
is widespread, extending over large territories;
given the near total lack of coordinated eco-
logical monitoring or programs to rehabilitate
polluted soils, there are great ecological and
socio-economic threats for the population of
these regions.
5. Potential impacts on human populations
The existence of ecological danger was con®rmed
by research conducted in 1995, in regions impacted by
missile stages from cosmodrome Plesetsk. The maxi-
mum concentrations of UDMH were 47 mg/kg (466
units of the Russian hygienic standard) in vegetation,
and 268 mg/kg (2684 units of the Russian hygienic
standard) in soils in the region Koida. In sub-soil waters
of Narjan Mar, there was 24 mg/l of UDMH (1200
units of the Russian hygienic standard) (Russian State
Report, 1996). In the region Makat, impacted by missile
stages from cosmodrome Kapustin, there was 4 mg/kg
(43 units of the Russian hygienic standard) of UDMH
in soil and 7 mg/kg (65 units of the Russian hygienic
standard) in the vegetation. Regions of fall of missile
second stages launched from cosmodrome Baikonur
have not been investigated.
There has been just one study regarding the health of
human inhabitants of the Arkhangelsk oblast exposed
to persistent toxic concentrations of UDMH. Minjaev
et al. (1997) studies two villages: (1) Tarasovo (in the
Plesetskii region), which is directly under the line of
launched missiles; and (2) Dolgoshelje (in the Mesenskii
region), which is near the site of ®rst stage missile
fallout. In Tarasovo, 90% of inhabitants displayed
pathologies; in Dolgoshelje the frequency was 79%.
In each case, liver damage was observed in more
than 50% of the surveyed inhabitants. The results of
ultrasonic research indicated a high frequency of the
damage to the hepato-biliary system, especially in
Tarasovo (91%). In addition, there were high frequen-
cies of anemias, leuko-lymphopenias, and toxic eosino-
philia (from 21 up to 44% in di€erent groups). In the
village of Dolgoshelje, over 80% of persons surveyed
displayed psychological depression, a rate that is ®ve-
fold higher than generally observed in the region of
Arkhangelsk.
Minjaev et al. (1997) summarized that living in the
`zone of in¯uence' of cosmodrome Plesetsk caused an
increased risk of vegetative-asthenic brain syndrome,
intoxication of unknown genesis, functional hepatic
insuciency, and morphological changes of the liver's
structure.
There is a lack of published information regarding the
health of persons working or living in missile installa-
tions. However, observations by military doctors testify
to serious lesions, especially among children, who also
display rates of morbidity that are markedly above
regional averages. Those same doctors indicate that
there generally are no `healthy children' at such instal-
lations. There are reported to be high morbidity rates
for viral hepatitis, dysentery, salmonella, and other
pathogens that, in the general population, are less often
life-threatening. Cases of anemia are also common in
the installations, and many children display increased
sensitivity to viral infections. Allergic reactions are
observed frequently.
Some information regarding the negative ecological
(and human health) consequences of missile stage fall-
out in northern Russia was given in the annual report
of the Russian State Ecological Committee of 1996
(Russian State Report, 1997). The following conclusions
and recommendations were made:
1. there should be an evacuation of human popula-
tions in places of missile stage fallout during
launches because of toxicity of propellant and the
danger of human exposure; the nature and climatic
conditions in northern Russia do not promote
a fast decrease of dangerous concentrations of
harmful compounds;
2. pollution with missile fuel in fallout regions causes
a decrease of animal fodder quality, a reduction of
®sh spawning grounds and, as a result, adverse
impacts on the economy of a€ected administrative
regions;
3. intensive atmospheric transport of pollutants from
places where missile fragments fall can occur
during several hours;
4. speci®c morbidity of high-risk groups, i.e. people
that visit the regions of missile fallout for eco-
nomic purposes (workers in animal industries,
forage production and medicinal plants, ®shermen
At the missile arsenal located in Zhangiz-Tobe, the
pregnant wives of servicemen experience frequent early-

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L.A. Fedorov / Environmental Pollution 105 (1999) 157±161
term abortion. Premature births are reported to be
common at installations in Derzhavinsk. Other birth
complications include immunode®ciency, sterility, jaun-
dice, and hemangiomas of various sizes and locations.
These conditions have been observed in other missile
installations.
held in storage, awaiting incineration (Russian State
Report, 1996).
7. Accidents
In addition to the conditions listed above, children
living on or near missile installations may experience
increased frequencies of allergic dermatitis, bronchitis,
allergic nephritis, prolonged streptoderma, cyst of
Turkish saddle, and unmotivated decrease of vision.
Similar symptoms have been described among per-
sons inhabiting regions near sites of UDMH produc-
tion. In that case, impacts are observed among both
workers from production plants and inhabitants of
nearby cities or villages. Cities frequently are blanketed
with a thick chemical fog that issues from the produc-
tion plant. During these events, it has been observed
that all babies housed in the maternity ward of hospi-
tals develop yellow skin coloration within 3±4 days.
The underlying jaundice may last for 3 weeks and, in
some cases, it requires long-term treatment. Without
medical help, a€ected babies may develop encephalo-
pathy, delayed development of speech, and broken
tonus.
A number of equipment failures and accidents have
occurred during the use of UDMH. Some of the most
serious accidents have taken place during the launching
of missiles from cosmodromes. The following is one
documented example.
On 26 January 1983 a missile launched from cosmo-
drome Plesetsk failed and dropped into the River
Dvina, near the settlement Brin-Navolok in Kholmo-
gory (Arkhangelsk oblast). There was an explosion, and
a 100-m diameter hole was produced in the ice covering
the river. The missile sank to the river bottom. Large
areas of snow were polluted, both on the river surface
and in the nearby settlement. Numerous contaminated
missile fragments also entered the area. Clean-up e€orts
were carried out though mid-February; the polluted
snow was removed and buried in a crater located 10 km
from the settlement. Subsequently, the polluted snow
was covered by soil. Settlements downstream of the
crash site were required to use alternative water supplies
(instead of the river) for some time after the event
(Tarajko, 1996).
6. Consequences of disarmament
Accidents have also occurred during transportation
of liquid missile propellant. On 1 February 1988, a rail-
way cargo train derailed near the city of Yaroslavl;
three tank cars containing UDMH left the tracks
and approximately 740 l was spilled from one over-
turned tank. Fortunately, the chemical did not enter the
nearby Volga River. More than 1100 persons partici-
pated in the clean-up e€ort associated with the train
accident, out of which 58 were poisoned and required
hospitalization. City-dwellers were evacuated from the
pollution zone. The volume of soil that was strongly
polluted (up to 20 g/kg of UDMH) was 150 m3. The
amount of slightly polluted ground was much greater.
Decontamination was problematic. At ®rst, only the
strongly polluted soil was removed, and transported to
the Rostov area of Yaroslavl oblast, where it was
burned in an open incinerator. Following protests by
the inhabitants of Yaroslavl, additional contaminated
soil was removed, and transported to the Gavrilov-
Yamskii area, near the village of Troitskoje. UDMH-
contaminated soil was decontaminated there by incin-
eration with kerosene, on open pallets instead of special
furnaces. Although the process was repeated many
times the UDMH content still exceeded Russian hygie-
nic standards. As a result, the incinerated material was
buried in two land®lls near the village Troitskoje. Dur-
ing the ®rst year after incineration and burial, numerous
dead rodents, foxes, hares and elk were found in the
area.
In 1993 a major reduction in the number of ballistic
missiles was begun in Russia. Hundreds of missiles were
removed from their storage sites and destroyed. By the
year 2003 it is estimated that an additional 1500 mis-
siles will be removed from service. Liquid propellant
from decommissioned missiles is collected at special
facilities located in Piban'Shur (Republic Udmurtiya),
Surovatikha (Nizhnii Novgorod oblast), Pashino city
(Novosibirsk oblast), Krasmash (Krasnoyarsk), and
Sergiev Posad (Moscow oblast).
The procedure used to collect liquid propellant from
missiles is ecologically dangerous. Missile tanks are
emptied of propellant, which is then incinerated with
diesel fuel. Within 10±15 days post-processing, UDMH
concentrations inside empty tanks can exceed hygienic
standards by two orders of magnitude due to desorption
of propellant from the tanks' inner walls. During the
incineration process, emissions of toxic compounds to
the air can exceed the Russian hygienic standard by
ten-fold, and cause toxic air pollution for a distance of
several kilometers (Russian State Report, 1996).
Another serious problem is temporary storage of
liquid propellant. In warehouses of the Russian Minis-
try of Defence, tens of thousands of tons of propellant
have been collected, including thousands of metric tons
of UDMH. By the year 2005, it is expected that an
additional 25 thousand metric tons of UDMH will be

L.A. Fedorov / Environmental Pollution 105 (1999) 157±161
161
8. Conclusions
References
Toxic liquid missile fuels, such as UDMH, pose seri-
ous threats to natural ecosystems and human popula-
tions over large regions of the former Soviet Union. At
present there is no systematic program for monitoring
pollution levels or impacts. Furthermore, the general
population is not well informed of the dangers posed by
continued use and storage of toxic fuels. The use of
UDMH should be stopped, and there is an urgent need
for research to quantify its distribution, transport and
impacts in the environment.
Minjaev, A.P., Sidorov, P.I., Sovershaeva, S.L., 1997. Rocket-cosmic
activity and health of the population. In: Siderov, P.I. (Ed.), Ecol-
ogy of People. Arkhangelsk Medical Academy, pp. 13±16.
Russian State Report, 1996. About Situation in the Russian Environ-
ment in 1995. Russian State Ecological Committee, Moscow.
Russian State Report, 1997. About Situation in the Russian Environ-
ment in 1996. Russian State Ecological Committee, Moscow.
Tarajko, V.I., 1996. Plesetsk space vehicle launching site and problems
of extreme situations. In: Siderov, P.I. (Ed.), Ecology of People.
Arkhangelsk Medical Academy, pp. 50±53.