Plasticizer and surfactant formation from food-waste- and algal biomass-derived lipids

Article abstract of DOI:10.1002/cssc.201402888

The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal biomass (produced from food-waste hydrolysate) for the formation of plasticizers and surfactants is investigated herein. Plasticizers were formed by epoxidation of double bonds of methylated unsaturated fatty acids with in situ generated peroxoformic acid. Assuming that all unsaturated fatty acids are convertible, 0.35 and 0.40 g of plasticizer can be obtained from 1 g of crude algae- or food-waste-derived lipids, respectively. Surfactants were formed by transesterification of saturated and epoxidized fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) with polyglycerol. The addition of polyglycerol would result in a complete conversion of saturated and epoxidized FAMEs to fatty acid polyglycerol esters. This study successfully demonstrates the conversion of food-waste into value-added chemicals using simple and conventional chemical reactions.

Full text of DOI:10.1002/cssc.201402888

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DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201402888
Plasticizer and Surfactant Formation from Food-Waste-
and Algal Biomass-Derived Lipids
[a]
[a]
[b]
[a]
Daniel Pleissner, Kin Yan Lau, Chengwu Zhang, and Carol Sze Ki Lin*
The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal bio-
mass (produced from food-waste hydrolysate) for the forma-
tion of plasticizers and surfactants is investigated herein. Plasti-
cizers were formed by epoxidation of double bonds of methy-
lated unsaturated fatty acids with in situ generated peroxofor-
mic acid. Assuming that all unsaturated fatty acids are conver-
tible, 0.35 and 0.40 g of plasticizer can be obtained from 1 g of
crude algae- or food-waste-derived lipids, respectively. Surfac-
tants were formed by transesterification of saturated and ep-
oxidized fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) with polyglycerol.
The addition of polyglycerol would result in a complete con-
version of saturated and epoxidized FAMEs to fatty acid poly-
glycerol esters. This study successfully demonstrates the con-
version of food-waste into value-added chemicals using simple
and conventional chemical reactions.
Introduction
More than one billion tons of food is wasted globally per
annual production of about 200000 tons, found application as
plasticizers to improve the flexibility and stability of polymers,
[
1]
year. In Hong Kong alone, about 3600 tons of industrial, com-
mercial, and domestic food waste are produced daily. Most of
the food waste in Hong Kong is disposed in landfill sites and
[4,15]
such as polyvinyl chloride.
Furthermore, epoxidized fatty
acids, but also saturated fatty acids, can undergo esterification
with polyglycerol for the formation of fatty acid polyglycerol
esters that are used as surfactants in various types of food and
[
2]
not particularly utilized. However, food waste contains carbo-
hydrates, proteins, and lipids, which make it a promising
source of nutrients (useful as fermentation feedstock) and of
[16–18]
technical processes.
The presence of epoxy groups allows
[
3–7]
fatty acids (useful in the synthesis of chemicals).
further chemical modification by ring-opening reactions to in-
[17]
We recently developed a food-waste valorization process
that involves the hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins into
glucose and free amino nitrogen by fungal glycolytic and pro-
teolytic enzymes, respectively, and the use of the hydrolytic
products as nutrient sources in microalgae and bacterial culti-
crease the performance of synthesized surfactants.
Biobased plasticizers and surfactants are mainly produced
from soybean, linseed, canola, sunflower, and rubberseed
[13,19,20]
oils.
The use of fatty acids from food-waste and algal
biomass produced from food-waste hydrolysates under hetero-
trophic conditions would not only enable the formation of bio-
based chemicals, but also facilitate the development of a mean-
ingful strategy for the recycling of food waste. Furthermore,
due to their biodegradability, biobased plasticizers and surfac-
tants will not accumulate in the environment, and this would
effectively contribute to the establishment of a “green and sus-
tainable” society.
[
3,8–11]
vations.
Lipids are unaffected by this hydrolytic approach
and due to the degradation of carbohydrates and proteins
a lipid-rich solid fraction remains after hydrolysis. In combina-
tion with the production of algal biomass from food-waste hy-
drolysate, this process provides two lipid-rich sources contain-
ing saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with promising po-
[
3,10]
tential for the formation of biobased chemicals.
The presence of unsaturated fatty acids in food waste and
algal lipids enables the formation of epoxy groups by epoxida-
Therefore, plasticizer and surfactant formation from algal
biomass- and food-waste-derived lipids is herein investigated.
Lipids were extracted using supercritical carbon dioxide and
transesterified with methanol. For plasticizer production,
double bonds in unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs)
were epoxidized using in situ generated peroxoformic acid
formed from the reaction of H O and formic acid. Saturated
[
12–14]
tion of double bonds.
Epoxidized fatty acids, with an
[
a] Dr. D. Pleissner, K. Y. Lau, Dr. C. S. K. Lin
School of Energy and Environment
City University of Hong
2
2
Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong (PR China)
E-mail: carolling@cityu.edu.hk
and epoxidized FAMEs were transesterified with polyglycerol
for the formation of fatty acid polyglycerol esters used as sur-
factants. Furthermore, a mass balance from crude lipids to
plasticizers is presented herein.
[b] Prof. C. Zhang
Laboratory of Microalgal Bioenergy and Biotechnology
Jinan University
No. 601, Huangpu Boulevard, Tianhe District
Guangzhou City, 510630 (PR China)
This publication is part of a Special Issue on “Green Chemistry and the
Environment”. Once the full issue has been assembled, a link its Table of
Contents will appear here.
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and 3) transesterification of saturated and epoxidized FAMEs
with polyglycerol for the formation of surfactants (Figure 1).
Algal biomass and lipid-rich solids consisted of 37% and
70% lipids, respectively. The extraction of crude lipids was per-
formed using supercritical carbon dioxide. However, efficiency
was low and only 20% of lipids was extracted from both sour-
ces. It is recommended that extraction could be performed
Results and Discussion
Algal biomass- and food-waste-derived lipids were investigated
as feedstocks for the production of plasticizers and surfactants.
Chemical reactions were performed as follows: 1) methylation
of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids; 2) epoxidation of
double bonds of unsaturated FAMEs for plasticizer formation;
Figure 1. Reaction schemes of the methylation of fatty acids, epoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, and transesterification of saturated fatty acids, such as
epoxidized FAMEs, with polyglycerol.
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conventionally using an organic solvent mixture of CH OH/
also confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. FTIR spectra (Figure 2A
3
2
CHCl (1:1, v/v) and a Soxhlet apparatus. In earlier studies con-
and B) revealed the characteristic stretching band of sp car-
3
À1
ducted in our laboratory, this procedure resulted in the extrac-
tion of nearly 70% and 80% of lipids from algal biomass and
lipid-rich solids, respectively (unpublished results). Both algal
and food-waste lipids contained saturated (palmitic and stea-
ric) and unsaturated (oleic, linoleic, and alpha-linolenic) fatty
acids. Algal lipids contained >70% of unsaturated fatty acids,
whereas the composition of food-waste lipids was relatively
balanced (Table 1). The presence of unsaturated fatty acids was
bons at 3002 cm indicating that algal and food-waste lipids
are promising investigation objects for the formation of epoxi-
[21]
dized FAMEs used as plasticizers (Figure 1).
The formation of plasticizers from unsaturated FAMEs was
investigated at room temperature for 24 h in the presence of
[13]
toluene and in situ generated peroxoformic acid (Figure 1).
Figure 3 shows the change in percentage concentration of sa-
turated, unsaturated, and epoxidized FAMEs. Saturated FAMEs
were affected by epoxidation and the percentage concentra-
tion of palmitic and stearic acid methyl esters slightly increased
during the first 3 h of reaction. By the formation of peroxofor-
mic acid, unsaturated FAMEs were epoxidized and their con-
centration diminished after 5 h (Figure 3A and B). Three major
reaction products, mono-, di- and triepoxidized FAMEs were
formed (Figure 3C and D) simultaneously. The percentage con-
centration of formed epoxidized FAMEs is in good agreement
with the initial percentage concentration of unsaturated
FAMEs (Table 1; Figure 3C and D). However, the slight increase
in the percentage concentration of saturated FAMEs during
the first 2–3 h of reaction (Figure 1 and 2) may indicate that
a small fraction of unsaturated
Table 1. Composition and percentage concentration of FAME mixtures
obtained after transesterification of fatty acids in crude algal and food-
waste lipids.
FAME
Algal lipids
%]
Food-waste lipids
[%]
[
palmitic acid (C16)
stearic acid (C18)
oleic acid (C18:1n9)
linoleic acid (C18:2n6)
a-linolenic acid (C18:3n3)
22.1
5.4
20.7
39.0
12.8
29.1
12.6
17.7
40.4
0.2
FAMEs was lost. Epoxidation is
mostly associated to side reac-
tions, such as hydroxylation, oxi-
dation, oxygenation, and dimer
[
12]
formation (Figure 1).
For in-
[15]
stance, Faria-Machado et al.
reported side products and the
presence of hydroxyl groups
when epoxidation was per-
formed using H O and acetic or
2
2
octanic acid at 608C for 6 h.
However, in the present study
FTIR spectra of reaction products
and GC spectra do not show any
indication of hydroxyl groups,
but the formation of an un-
known product cannot be ruled
out. Contrarily, side products
were not reported when the re-
action was performed at identi-
cal conditions in earlier investi-
[13]
gations. From the percentage
concentration, it can be assumed
that C18:0 monoepoxidized
methyl ester was formed from
C18:1n9 methyl ester, C18:0 die-
poxidized methyl ester originat-
ed from C18:2n6 methyl ester,
and C18:0 triepoxidized methyl
ester was formed from C18:3n3
methyl ester. Furthermore, two
intermediates (C18:1 and C18:2
monoepoxidized methyl esters)
were found. The percentage
Figure 2. FTIR spectra of FAME mixtures from crude algal (A) and food-waste (B) lipids, of saturated and epoxi-
dized FAME mixtures formed from algal (C) and food-waste (D) lipids, and of saturated and epoxidized fatty acid
polyglycerol esters formed from algal (E) and food-waste (F) lipids. The following characteristic stretching bands
À1
À1
2
À1
were identified: a: 3317 cm ÀOH, b: 3002 cm ÀCHÀ of sp carbon atoms, c: 2917 and 2850 cm ÀCH
d: 1741 cm ÀC=O, e: 1680–1620 cm ÀC=CÀ; f: 1458 cm ÀCH or ÀCH À, g: 1243 and 1166 cm ÀCÀCOÀO,
h: 1110 and 1037 cm ÀCÀOÀ, and i: 842 cm ÀCÀOÀCÀ.
2
À,
À1
À1
À1
[21]
À1
3
2
À1
À1
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acted with polyglycerol to form
fatty acid polyglycerol esters.
The obtained surfactant was
a highly viscous and water-solu-
ble gel. FTIR spectra showed the
presence of hydroxyl groups
À1
(
stretch at 3300 cm ) coming
[
21]
from polyglycerol.
Further-
more, FTIR spectra of the reac-
tion product revealed the char-
acteristic stretching band for
epoxy
groups
at
around
À1
[21]
840 cm
(Figure 2E and F).
Thus, the epoxy groups were
not affected by the formation
process and further chemical
modifications in order to im-
prove the performance of the
synthesized surfactants are pos-
[17]
sible.
We found previously
that the reaction conditions
used herein led to surfactants
that contained a hexaglyceride
unit and with similar properties
to alcohol ethoxylates used in
shampoo and textile applica-
Figure 3. Epoxidation of FAMEs obtained from algal (A and C) and food-waste (B and D) lipids. Change in percent-
age concentration of methyl ester of palmitic (C16, closed circle), stearic (C18, open circle), oleic (C18:1n9, closed
quadrate), linoleic (C18:2n6, open quadrate), and a-linolenic acid (C18:3n3, closed triangle), and formation of satu-
rated monoepoxidized (C18:0 MEO, closed diamond), saturated diepoxidized (C18:0 DEO, open diamond), saturat-
ed triepoxidized (C18:0 TEO, reversed closed triangle), monoepoxidized mono-unsaturated (C18:1 MEO, closed
star), and monoepoxidized di-unsaturated (C18:2 MEO, open star) during epoxidation.
[17]
tions.
However, further de-
concentration of intermediates increased within the first 2 h to
10% and decreased to 0% after 24 h. It is assumed that the
tailed investigations are necessary to study the polymerization
of glycerol, to reveal properties and quantities of the final sur-
factant, and to realize the suggested valorization of food waste
at larger scale.
>
C18:1 and C18:2 monoepoxidized methyl esters were com-
pletely epoxidized and contributed to the formation of di- and
triepoxidized FAMEs, respectively (Figure 3C and D). FTIR spec-
tra of epoxidized reaction products revealed that the charac-
Figure 4 shows a flow chart for the utilization of food waste
and a mass balance for the formation of plasticizers and surfac-
tants from algae- and food-waste-derived lipids. Details of
2
teristic ÀCHÀ stretching band of sp carbon atoms at
À1
3
002 cm disappeared, whereas the characteristic stretching
food-waste hydrolysis and algae cultivation in food-waste hy-
À1
[3,10]
band of epoxy groups at around 840 cm appeared (Fig-
drolysates were reported earlier by Pleissner et al.
Starting
[
21]
ure 2C and D).
The ÀC=CÀ stretching band at 1680–
from 1 g of crude algal and 1 g of food-waste lipids, 0.69 and
0.97 g of FAMEs were produced, respectively. The higher yield
of FAMEs from food-waste lipids may indicate the presence of
more free fatty acids and less glycerol than in algal lipids. After
epoxidation, around 70% of the initial mass of FAMEs was re-
covered by diethyl ether extraction, and 0.34 and 0.40 g of
plasticizers were formed from crude algal and food-waste
lipids, respectively. Plasticizers could be separated from saturat-
ed FAMEs and used directly, whereas saturated FAMEs could
be used as biodiesel. However, in the present study a saturated
and epoxidized FAMEs mixture was used for the formation of
surfactants. It should be stressed that the content and compo-
À1
1
620 cm (Figure 2C and D) belongs to toluene used as a sol-
[
21]
vent in the epoxidation reaction.
The moderate reaction conditions used herein resulted in
a good yield of plasticizer and >90% of the initial unsaturated
FAMEs were converted. This finding is in agreement with the
[
13]
outcomes of Akintayo et al., who found an almost complete
conversion. This finding also shows that temperatures of 608C
or higher are not necessary to achieve high conversion
[
14,15]
yields.
Furthermore, the reaction was basically completed
after 5 h and thus, the overall reaction time can be reduced
with considerable impact on process economy.
[3]
The formation of polyglycerol ester-based surfactants from
saturated and epoxidized FAMEs was carried out using the
sition of food-waste lipids depend on the kind of food waste.
Different batches of food waste may contain less unsaturated,
but more saturated fatty acids and vice versa. Therefore, the
mass balance of food-waste-lipid-based plasticizers and surfac-
tants would not be consistent in general. Contrarily, when the
fermentative production of algal biomass is performed and re-
peated under identical conditions, the content and composi-
tion of algal lipids is stable and the formation of plasticizers is
[
17]
method published by Doll and Erhan at 708C. The reaction
was performed at a saturated FAMEs/epoxidized FAMEs mix-
ture-to-polyglycerol ratio of 1:1 (w/w). This ratio was found to
preclude a ring-opening reaction of the epoxy group and the
[
17]
formation of side products (Figure 1). Surfactant formation
was performed for 24 h, after which no free saturated and ep-
oxidized FAMEs were found. It was assumed that all FAMEs re-
[10]
highly predictable.
Theoretically, all reaction products ob-
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À1
amino nitrogen (0.08 gL ), and
À1
phosphate (0.04 gL ) at 288C and
an initial pH of 6.5. Flasks were
shaken at 180 rpm in an orbital
shaker and subcultivated every 5d.
Food-waste hydrolysis: Lipids in
food waste, collected at canteens
in the Hong Kong Science and
Technology Park, Shatin, Hong
Kong, were generated by hydroly-
sis of carbohydrates and proteins
using enzymes secreted by the
two fungal strains A. awamori and
[10]
A. oryzae.
After hydrolysis, the
remaining lipid-rich solids were
separated from hydrolysate by
centrifugation at 10000 g for
1
5 min. The hydrolysate was used
as a nutrient source in the produc-
tion of algal biomass. Lipid-rich
solids were lyophilized and used as
a source of food-waste lipids.
Algal biomass production: Algal
biomass of the heterotrophic
strain C. pyrenoidosa was produced
using the hydrolysate obtained
from food-waste hydrolysis. The
Figure 4. Flow chart illustrating a process for the utilization of food waste, involving a mass balance from crude
algal and food-waste lipids through FAMEs to plasticizers and surfactants.
tained after epoxidation, including saturated fatty acids, can
be used in the formation of surfactants and the yield would be
high accordingly.
fermentative production of algal biomass was performed in batch
À1
cultures in the presence of glucose (around 20.0 gL ), free amino
À1
À1
nitrogen (0.2 gL ), and phosphate (0.1 gL ) at 288C and a pH
[10]
value of 6.5. After fermentation, the culture broth was centri-
fuged at 10000 g for 15 min, and the pellet was lyophilized and
used as a source of algal lipids.
Conclusions
Extraction of crude algal and food-waste lipids: Extraction of crude
algal and food-waste lipids from C. pyrenoidosa biomass and lipid-
rich solids, respectively, was performed using a continuous flow of
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids from food-waste and
algal biomass produced from food-waste hydrolysates under
heterotrophic conditions are promising feedstock for the pro-
duction of plasticizers and surfactants, and alternatives to veg-
etable oils. Plasticizer formation was performed by epoxidation
of double bonds of unsaturated epoxidized fatty acid methyl
esters (FAMEs) using in situ generated peroxoformic acid. Fur-
thermore, saturated and epoxidized FAMEs were used for the
formation of fatty acid polyglycerol ester-based surfactant. Ulti-
mately, it was shown that using simple and conventional
chemical reactions, lipids derived from food waste and algal
biomass can be utilized in the production of value-added
chemicals.
À1
carbon dioxide (0.3 mLmin ) at 908C and 450 bar for 1 h using
a SPE-ED supercritical fluid extraction apparatus from Applied Sep-
arations (PA, USA). Extracted lipids were dissolved in hexane, con-
centrated by rotary evaporation, and stored at À208C.
Transesterification of fatty acids: Transesterification of fatty acids in
crude algal and food-waste lipids was performed in duplicate in
a reaction mixture containing CH OH, HCl, and CHCl (10:1:1 v/v/
3
3
[22]
v).
The reaction mixture (2 mL) was added to lipid extract
(100 mg) and after 1 h at 908C the formed FAMEs were extracted
using hexane, concentrated by rotary evaporation, and stored at
À208C. FAME mixtures were analyzed by FTIR and GC analyses.
Epoxidation of unsaturated FAMEs: Epoxidation of unsaturated
FAMEs was investigated in duplicate in a reaction mixture contain-
ing FAMEs (0.1 g), H O (1.0 mL, 30%), toluene (0.5 mL), and formic
Experimental Section
2
2
[13]
acid (4.0 mol).
The formation of epoxidized FAMEs was per-
Microorganisms: Aspergillus awamori ATCC 14331 was purchased
from the American Type Culture Collection (Rockville, MD, USA).
Aspergillus oryzae was isolated from a soy-sauce starter provided by
the Amoy Food Ltd., Hong Kong. Spore solutions of A. awamori
formed at room temperature (218C) for 24 h in stirred reaction ves-
sels. At each sample point, saturated/unsaturated FAMEs and ep-
oxidized FAMEs were extracted in diethyl ether and their concen-
trations quantified using GC analysis. The final product was ana-
lyzed using FTIR spectroscopy.
6
À1
5
À1
(
2.9ꢁ10 sporesml ) and A. oryzae (6.3ꢁ10 sporesml ) were pre-
[9]
pared according to the method by Lam et al. and stored at À808C.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 15-2070 was purchased from the Carolina
Biological Supply Company (Burlington, NC, USA). Stock culture for
fermentative algal biomass production was heterotrophically
grown in 250 mL conical flasks containing sterile-filtered food-
Formation of polyglycerol: Polyglycerol formation was performed
[17]
according to the method published by Doll and Erhan. Glycerol
(5.0 g) was heated under stirring for 2 h at 1408C in the presence
of NaOH (0.5 g).
À1
waste hydrolysate (100 mL) consisting of glucose (4.8 gL ), free
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Formation of fatty acid polyglycerol ester: Fatty acid polyglycerol
ester formation was performed in duplicate in stirred reaction ves-
sels containing an algal or food-waste-lipid-derived saturated
FAMEs/epoxidized FAMEs mixture (0.3 g) and polyglycerol (0.3 g) at
[2] Hong Kong SAR Environment Bureau “Hong Kong blueprint for sustain-
able use of resources 2013–2022”, 2013.
[
[
3] D. Pleissner, T. H. Kwan, C. S. K. Lin, Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 158, 48–54.
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7
08C. After 24 h, possible remaining saturated and epoxidized
FAMEs were extracted in diethyl ether and analyzed using GC and
FTIR.
[
[
[
[
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FTIR spectroscopy: FTIR analyses were performed using an IRAffini-
ty-1 (Shimadzu, JPN) equipped with a MIRacle single reflection at-
tenuated total reflectance accessory (Pike, WI, USA) and a ZnSe
À1
crystal. Spectra were recorded in the range of 700 to 3500 cm at
À1
a resolution of 4 cm . Each sample was scanned 40 times.
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1
Quantification of FAMEs and epoxidized FAMEs: FAMEs and epoxi-
dized FAMEs were separated and quantified using GC analysis on
a DB-23 column (30 mꢁ0.25 mmꢁ0.25 mm, Agilent, CA, USA). The
[
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[
following temperature program was used: initial temperature was
À1
5
08C held for 1 min, then increased to 1758C at 258Cmin and
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À1
held for 1 min, and lastly increased to 2608C at 48Cmin and held
for 1 min. Detection was performed using a flame ionization detec-
tor. Obtained peaks in chromatograms were identified and quanti-
fied after comparison to reference FAMEs.
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[
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[
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Received: August 24, 2014
Revised: October 9, 2014
Published online on && &&, 0000
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2014 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ChemSusChem 0000, 00, 1 – 7
&
6
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These are not the final page numbers!

FULL PAPERS
Establishment of a green society by
waste utilization: A sustainable process
is introduced for the formation of plasti-
cizers and surfactants from food-waste
and algal lipids. Plasticizer was formed
by epoxidation of unsaturated fatty
acids extracted from food-waste and
algal biomass, heterotrophically pro-
duced from food-waste hydrolysate.
Surfactant was produced by transesteri-
fication of epoxidized and saturated
fatty acid methyl esters with polyglycer-
ol for the formation of surfactants.
D. Pleissner, K. Y. Lau, C. Zhang,
C. S. K. Lin*
&& – &&
Plasticizer and Surfactant Formation
from Food-Waste- and Algal Biomass-
Derived Lipids
ꢀ
2014 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ChemSusChem 0000, 00, 1 – 7
&
7
&
ÞÞ
These are not the final page numbers!