Energy-Efficient Solar Photochemistry with Luminescent Solar Concentrator Based Photomicroreactors

Article abstract of DOI:10.1002/anie.201908553

The sun is the most sustainable light source available on our planet, therefore the direct use of sunlight for photochemistry is extremely appealing. Demonstrated here, for the first time, is that a diverse set of photon-driven transformations can be efficiently powered by solar irradiation with the use of solvent-resistant and cheap luminescent solar concentrator based photomicroreactors. Blue, green, and red reactors can accommodate both homogeneous and multiphase reaction conditions, including photochemical oxidations, photocatalytic trifluoromethylation chemistry, and metallaphotoredox transformations, thus spanning applications over the entire visible-light spectrum. To further illustrate the efficacy of these novel solar reactors, medicinally relevant molecules, such as ascaridole and an intermediate of artemisinin, were prepared as well.

Full text of DOI:10.1002/anie.201908553

A Journal of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker
Angewandte
International Edition Chemie
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Accepted Article
Title: Energy-efficient solar photochemistry with Luminescent Solar
Concentrator-based photomicroreactors
Authors: Dario Cambie, Jeroen Dobbelaar, Paola Riente Paiva,
Jochen Vanderspikken, Chong Shen, Peter Seeberger, Kerry
Gilmore, Michael Debije, and Timothy Noel
This manuscript has been accepted after peer review and appears as an
Accepted Article online prior to editing, proofing, and formal publication
of the final Version of Record (VoR). This work is currently citable by
using the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) given below. The VoR will be
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to this Accepted Article as a result of editing. Readers should obtain
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To be cited as: Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 10.1002/anie.201908553
Angew. Chem. 10.1002/ange.201908553
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Energy-efficient solar photochemistry with Luminescent Solar
Concentrator-based photomicroreactors
[
a]
[a]
[a]
[a]
[a]
Dario Cambié , Jeroen Dobbelaar , Paola Riente Paiva , Jochen Vanderspikken , Chong Shen ,
[
b]
[b]
[c]
*[a]
Peter H. Seeberger , Kerry Gilmore , Michael G. Debije and Timothy Noёl
Abstract: The sun is the most sustainable light source available on
our planet; therefore, the direct use of sunlight for photochemistry is
extremely appealing. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that a
diverse set of photon-driven transformations can be efficiently
powered by solar irradiation with the use of solvent-resistant and
cheap Luminescent Solar Concentrator-based Photomicroreactors.
Blue, green and red reactors can accommodate both homogeneous
and multiphase reaction conditions, including photochemical
oxidations, photocatalytic trifluoromethylation chemistry, and
metallaphotoredox transformations, thus spanning applications over
the entire visible light spectrum. To further illustrate the efficacy of
these novel solar reactors, medicinally relevant molecules, such as
ascaridole and an intermediate of artemisinin, were prepared as well.
1).[10,11] These shortcomings limit the usefulness of solar energy in
photochemical transformations and result in impractical, long
reaction times for solar-powered photocatalysis.
Here, we show that, with a dedicated reactor design based on the
luminescent solar concentrator concept, it is possible to surmount
all of these limitations, fully unleashing the sustainable potential
of solar photochemistry. Luminescent Solar Concentrators
(LSCs) are inexpensive slabs of luminophore-doped polymeric
materials that harvest, down-convert, and concentrate solar
photons.[12,13] LSCs can be used as photon harvesters for
photochemical reactions in so-called Luminescent Solar
Concentrator-Photomicroreactors (LSC-PMs).[
14]
In LSC-PMs,
the LSC lightguide is embedded with microreactor channels,
acting as final absorbers of the sunlight-generated luminescent
photons. Our original LSC-PM implementation was characterized
by limited chemical and optical stability, which prevented the
applicability of LSC-PMs to the vast majority of the reported visible
light-driven photochemical reactions. Herein, a conceptually new
design is presented for the integration of LSCs and microreactors
that eliminates these shortcomings. Moreover, our design is
capable of concentrating both direct and diffuse solar photons and
can be coupled with light sensors positioned at the device’s edge.
When combined in a feedback loop, this cheap self-optimization
system can autonomously compensate for the fluctuations in
solar irradiance, e.g. for passing clouds.[15] Hence, we provide a
blueprint to carry out essentially every visible-light-driven
photochemical transformation in the sun.
Solar energy-conversion technologies are extremely attractive
due to the unrivaled potential of this energy source.[1] To date, the
majority of research attention has focused on solar electricity,[2]
solar thermal[3] and solar fuels,[4] while the synthesis of chemicals
powered by solar light has gathered significantly less scrutiny.
However, the production of fine chemicals including drugs and
fragrances could significantly benefit from green processes
directly powered by solar energy.[5,6]
In the last decade, the field of photochemistry has been
revolutionized by the introduction of photoredox catalysis, which
vastly expanded the scope of reactions promoted by light
irradiation.[7-9] Photoredox reactions are ideal candidates for solar
applications since the use of photocatalysts with high extinction
coefficients makes them good photon harvesters. Moreover, the
majority of the synthetically useful photocatalysts absorb in the
visible range, which is the region of peak intensity in the solar
spectrum.[10,11] Despite the attractiveness of green and
Our novel design uses perfluoroalkoxy alkane (PFA) capillaries
embedded in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) lightguides
(
Figure 1A). This design offers a substantial photon-flux
improvement compared to the original, PDMS-based design, due
to the material’s higher refractive index. Consequently, 40% more
photons are directed to the reaction channels leading to
substantial rate accelerations (see Figure S12). The adoption of
PMMA as material for the LSC-PM also came with additional
benefits in terms of cost-effectiveness, commercial availability of
the polymeric slabs, and ease in reactor scaling (10×10, 20×20,
[
6]
sustainable solar photochemistry, its low popularity can be
attributed to the broad spectral distribution, the fluctuations in
-2
-
solar irradiance and the dilute energy content (up to 6.6 mol∙m ∙h
[
a]
D. Cambié, J. Dobbelaar, Dr. P. Riente Paiva, J. Vanderspikken, C.
Shen, Dr. T. Noël
2
and 30×30 cm , from 0.18 to 1.59 mL) (Figure 1C). Moreover,
Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Sustainable
Process Engineering, Micro Flow Chemistry & Synthetic
Methodology, Eindhoven University of Technology, Het Kranenveld,
Bldg 14 – Helix, 5600 MB, Eindhoven (The Netherlands).
E-mail: t.noel@tue.nl
PMMA provides a slower luminophore degradation (up to 3%
decrease in absorbance over 2 years)[ and is compatible with a
great variety of luminophore dopants. The latter aspect paves the
way to construct red, green and blue LSC-PM devices, hence
providing access to all visible-light mediated transformations, e.g.
methylene blue for the red device, eosin Y and rose Bengal for
the green, and Ru-based metal complexes for the blue reactor
16]
Homepage: www.noelresearchgroup.com
[
[
b]
c]
Prof. Dr. P. H. Seeberger, Dr. K. Gilmore
Department of Biomolecular Systems, Max-Planck Institute of
Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam
(Germany).
(
see Figure 1B and C).
Dr. M. G. Debije
Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Functional
Organic Materials & Devices, Eindhoven University of Technology,
Het Kranenveld, Bldg 14 – Helix, 5600 MB, Eindhoven (The
Netherlands).
Supporting information for this article is given via a link at the end of
the document.
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(
Figure 2A). While the observed acceleration by a factor of two is
impressive, it does not compare to the 5-fold acceleration
predicted by the Monte Carlo simulations for the device (see
Supplementary Information). We suspected that the reaction
kinetics were not linearly correlated with the light input at one sun
intensity for this specific transformation. To verify this hypothesis,
we switched to a singlet oxygen-mediated reaction. It is known
that the photosensitized production of singlet oxygen is linearly
dependent on the incident photon flux.[
14]
In particular, the
oxidation of methionine thioether to the corresponding sulfoxide
was chosen, given that this product has attracted considerable
attention over the past few years.[20,21] In this case, the LSC-PM
provided a 6-fold acceleration under solar simulated conditions
(
see Figure 2B and Supporting Information).
As a direct consequence of the down-converting nature of LSCs,
the lower the energy of the luminescent photons (i.e. red shifted
photons), the higher the overall optical efficiency will be. However,
there are far more photocatalysts absorbing in the green and blue
portions of the visible spectrum than in the red region. For this
reason, an organic fluorescent dye emitting at 530 nm, i.e. DFSB-
K160, was selected to manufacture green LSC-PMs for reactions
catalyzed by e.g. eosin Y and rose bengal. The calculated LSC-
PM photon-flux accelerations compared to simple capillaries were
found to be around 4.5-fold for both photocatalysts (see
Supplementary Information). The combination of eosin Y and the
green LSC-PM was investigated for the eosin Y-mediated aerobic
oxidation of benzylamine to dibenzylimine (Figure 2C).[22] A 3.3-
fold acceleration was observed in the LSC-PM (see Supporting
-2
-
Information), producing the imine in ~75% yield at 30 mmol·m ·h
1.
Next, to test the combination of LSC-PM and rose bengal, we
adopted the well-known cycloaddition of singlet oxygen to α-
terpinene, yielding the anthelmintic drug ascaridole. Notably, this
reaction was the first photochemical reaction performed in a solar-
driven manufacturing plant by Gꢀnther Otto Schenck in 1948.[
Due to its efficiency, this reaction is often used as benchmark for
singlet oxygen reaction systems.[6,24] Under solar-simulated
irradiation, a productivity of 274 mmol∙m ∙h of solar irradiated
surface was observed (Figure 2D).[11] This high productivity
emphasizes the validity of the LSC-PM design for photon-efficient
solar photochemistry.
23]
Figure 1. (A) Photographs and schematic comparison between the capillary-
based LSC-PM (right) and the original design (left); (B) photographs of LSC-
PMs with different dye dopants; (C) LSC-PMs of different sizes, with irradiated
volumes of 177 µL, 707 µL and 1.59 mL respectively.
-2
-1
To test the generality of our next generation LSC-PM reactors, we
carried out a diverse set of photocatalytic transformations that
have shown great potential in synthetic organic chemistry (Figure
2
). The first photocatalytic reaction, carried out in a red LSC-PM,
was the hydroxylation of aryl boronic acids. While the reaction
was originally reported by Xiao and co-workers with Ru(bpy) 2+,
3
Scaiano et al. showed that methylene blue was equally
effective.[17,18] We commenced by adapting the reaction to
continuous-flow, using phenylboronic acid as a model substrate.
The oxygen balloon employed in the original batch literature
report was replaced by a pure oxygen stream, resulting in a
gas/liquid slug flow regime. The adoption of a slug flow regime
increases the mass transfer between the gas and the liquid phase
and results in an acceleration of the apparent reaction kinetics.[19]
Ideally, this acceleration can extend the point where the light input
becomes a limiting factor, thus providing the maximum attainable
productivity under solar conditions. Indeed, the reaction was
accelerated from the 6 hours required in the original report to only
5
minutes in the LSC-PM under AM 1.5G solar conditions. Notably,
the reaction kinetics were now partly light-limited, as shown by the
fact that the LSC-PM provided substantial acceleration
compared to a simple capillary irradiated under similar conditions
a
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sunlight. Because of its simplicity and safety, the first reaction
selected for outdoor testing on
a larger scale was the
photooxidation of methionine (Figure 3). In this scenario, a
cartridge filled with activated charcoal was placed at the reactor
outlet to remove the photocatalyst from the reaction stream and
thus quench the reaction in-line. Consequently, the outlet
contained only a water mixture of unreacted starting material and
product. The LSC-PM reactor showed consistently higher
reaction yields compared with a simple capillary (Figure 3A). This
can be attributed to the increased photon harvesting ability of the
LSC-PM leading to higher photon fluxes in the reaction channels.
Figure 3. Outdoor experiment for the methylene blue-catalyzed photooxidation
of methionine. A) Reaction scheme, solar irradiation, and yield over time. B)
Flow scheme of the experimental setup. C) Photographs of the experimental
setup.
Recently, we showed that the light intensity measured at the edge
of the device can be used to dynamically adjust the residence time
in the reactor, thus autonomously correcting for the natural
fluctuations in solar irradiance.[ We applied this approach for the
Figure 2. Overview of the reactions performed in the LSC-PM. (A) Hydroxylation
of boronic acids, (B) oxidation of (L)-methionine, (C) benzylamine oxidation (D)
α-terpinene oxidation (E) morpholine arylation.
15]
light-limited Ru(bpy)
3
2+-catalyzed trifluoromethylation using
LSC-PMs capable of concentrating blue photons are even more
appealing to match the absorption (≈450 nm range) of several
commonly used photocatalysts, including Ru(bpy) Cl , Mes-Acr
3 2
trifluoroacetic anhydride reported by Stephenson and co-
workers.[25,26] In this case, little to no acceleration was observed
with the use of the blue LSC-PM as opposed to a simple capillary
reactor, likely due to the limited light-collecting efficiency of the
blue dye. In fact, to generate fluorescent blue photons, UV light is
needed whose abundance in the solar spectrum is limited.
However, the developed system has additional advantages to a
simple capillary reactor as a result of its potential for automation.
After measuring the apparent reaction kinetics at difference
irradiance intensities, we tested an automated reaction control
system for the solar-powered trifluoromethylation of mesitylene.
The reaction was performed outdoors during a partially sunny
winter day with substantial fluctuation in solar irradiance intensity.
As shown in Figure 4, the reaction control system compensated
for the fluctuations in solar irradiance in real time by changing the
pump flow rate and afforded relatively stable reaction yields at
about 45% with 96% selectivity.[25]
+
and 2-CzPN. The frontier of photoredox chemistry is currently
exemplified by the so-called “dual-catalysis” concept, also known
as “metallaphotoredox catalysis”, which constitutes a synergetic
merger of transition metal catalysis and photoredox catalysis.[27]
Metallaphotoredox provides access to activation modes that are
both unique and complementary to traditional metal catalysis,
naturally attracting significant interest. Despite the novelty of this
field, some reactions are already characterized by efficient
catalyst turnover and photon-limited kinetics, thus constituting an
interesting application benchmark for the LSC-PM. To explore the
applicability of metallaphotoredox reactions in LSC-PM, we chose
the aryl amination catalyzed by NiCl
2
∙glyme and Ru(bpy)
3
Cl
2
as
The
reported by Buchwald, MacMillan, and co-workers.[
28,29]
reaction conditions were adapted to flow using DMSO as solvent
instead of DMA to obtain a homogeneous reaction mixture, and
p-bromobenzotrifluoride was selected as a model substrate. The
reaction was performed in the blue LSC-PM, resulting in a slight
acceleration compared to the non-doped analog (Figure 2E).
What is remarkable is that the selectivity of this reaction is
improved, with a maximum yield in the LSC-PM of 93% versus a
maximum yield in the capillary of 80%. This effect can be
attributed to the decreased UV content of the light reaching the
reaction channels in the LSC-PM.[30]
Since the primary application of the LSC-PM is in solar
photochemistry, we performed some reactions with natural
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The published reaction conditions were adapted for the use of
methylene blue as photocatalyst and, after having acquired the
kinetic profile, the reaction was performed on a window ledge,
under solar irradiation (see Supplementary Information) with a
reaction control system. In Figure 5 the results from the solar
experiments are presented. The use of the reaction control
system resulted in a similar reaction yield (between 69 and 78%),
with a significantly higher productivity during the second day (up
-2
-1
to 21.2 mmol∙m ∙h ) due to the higher irradiance.
Figure 4. Outdoor trifluoromethylation of mesitylene in the blue LSC-PM. (A)
Reaction conditions. (B) Reaction yield of the samples collected during the
experiment. The first sample was taken after 60 minutes, and after that, one
sample every 5 minutes was acquired. (C) Light intensity measured at the
device edge and proportional changes in residence time during the experiment
operated by the autonomous reaction control system.
In 1912, Giacomo Ciamician challenged the scientific community
to imagine a chemical industry run on solar energy.[34] Inspired by
Ciamician’s grand vision, we have developed a novel reactor
design that constitutes a versatile, inexpensive and photon
efficient solution to harvest solar energy for synthetic
applications.[35] Several different photon-driven reactions are
showcased, ranging from photochemical oxidations to
metallaphotoredox couplings. With the adoption of a reaction
control system, stable product quality can be ensured even during
fluctuating irradiance conditions. Notably, the LSC-PM design
reported here is mostly transparent to IR radiation, which avoids
heating of the reactor. This also means that a further increase in
the fraction of utilizable solar light can be achieved by combining
it with other solar energy conversion technologies capable of
making productive use of such low-energy photons, like
photovoltaic cells.[36]
All of these examples showcase the relative simplicity in adapting
photochemical reactions for solar applications using the LSC-PM.
However, as highlighted in the introduction, the productivity
afforded by solar photochemistry has a physical limit of several
moles per square meter and per hour of solar irradiated area.[6]
This means that solar photochemistry is especially a viable option
for high added-value chemicals such as drugs and fragrances.
Therefore, to provide a realistic application for the LSC-PM
concept, the continuous solar-driven synthesis of artemisinin[31]
was taken as an example. Artemisinin and its derivatives are the
most effective drugs against malaria, and their yearly production
is not sufficient to meet the world’s needs.[32,33] A solar-based
production plant would be particularly suited for those limited
resource settings where the disease is endemic. The crucial step
in the semisynthetic approach is the biomimetic photooxygenation
of dihydroartemisinic acid to the corresponding endoperoxide,
which yields, after acid-catalyzed Hock cleavage, artemisinin
Acknowledgements
D.C. and T.N. would like to acknowledge the European Union for
a Marie Curie ITN Grant (Photo4Future, grant number 641861).
P.R.P. received a Marie Curie European post-doctoral fellowship
(
MOSPhotocat, Grant No. 793677). K.G. and P.H.S. thanks for
generous financial support provided by the Max Planck Society
and DFG InCHeM (FOR 2177).
(
Figure 5, top).
Keywords: Flow Chemistry • Photoredox Catalysis • Solar
Energy • Luminescent Solar Concentrator • Photochemistry
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Entry for the Table of Contents
Dario Cambié, Jeroen Dobbelaar, Paola Riente Paiva, Jochen Vanderspikken, Chong Shen, Peter H.
Seeberger, Kerry Gilmore, Michael G. Debije and Timothy Noёl*
Page No. – Page No.
Energy-efficient solar photochemistry with Luminescent Solar Concentrator-based
photomicroreactors
Herein, we report a broadly applicable Luminescent Solar Concentrator-based PhotoMicroreactor which allows to harvest solar energy for
applications in visible light-mediated photochemistry. For the first time, we demonstrate that this design can be applied to a wide variety of
different reactions, ranging from photochemical oxidations, photoredox catalysis to metallaphotoredox couplings, thus spanning applications
over the entire visible light spectrum. The described reactors can be easily scaled and its inexpensive and self-powered nature makes it ideally
suited for the cost-effective production of chemicals using solar energy.
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