Bifunctional Ionic Liquids Derived from Biorenewable Sources as Sustainable Catalysts for Fixation of Carbon Dioxide

Article abstract of DOI:10.1002/cssc.201601228

A series of highly efficient, bifunctional ionic liquids containing a quaternary alkyl ammonium cation and an amine anion were prepared from choline and amino acids, respectively. Nine ILs were synthesized, characterized, and applied as organocatalysts for the chemical fixation of carbon dioxide to form cyclic carbonates and quinazoline-2,4(1 H,3 H)-diones. A binary mixture of an IL and a co-catalysts generates deep eutectic solvents (DESs) and accelerates the rate of the cycloaddition reaction at atmospheric pressure and low temperature (70 °C). The presence of the hydroxyl functional group of choline and the free amine group of the amino acids in the ILs has a synergistic effect on the activation of the epoxide and carbon dioxide towards the cycloaddition reactions. These ILs are biodegradable and are synthesized from easily available biorenewable sources. Additionally, this catalytic method demonstrates ultimate environmental benignity because of the mild metal- and solvent-free conditions as well as the recyclability of the catalyst and co-catalyst.

Full text of DOI:10.1002/cssc.201601228

DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201601228
Full Papers
Bifunctional Ionic Liquids Derived from Biorenewable
Sources as Sustainable Catalysts for Fixation of Carbon
Dioxide
Vitthal B. Saptal and Bhalchandra M. Bhanage*[a]
A series of highly efficient, bifunctional ionic liquids containing
a quaternary alkyl ammonium cation and an amine anion were
prepared from choline and amino acids, respectively. Nine ILs
were synthesized, characterized, and applied as organocata-
lysts for the chemical fixation of carbon dioxide to form cyclic
carbonates and quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones. A binary mix-
ture of an IL and a co-catalysts generates deep eutectic sol-
vents (DESs) and accelerates the rate of the cycloaddition reac-
tion at atmospheric pressure and low temperature (708C). The
presence of the hydroxyl functional group of choline and the
free amine group of the amino acids in the ILs has a synergistic
effect on the activation of the epoxide and carbon dioxide to-
wards the cycloaddition reactions. These ILs are biodegradable
and are synthesized from easily available biorenewable sour-
ces. Additionally, this catalytic method demonstrates ultimate
environmental benignity because of the mild metal- and
solvent-free conditions as well as the recyclability of the cata-
lyst and co-catalyst.
Introduction
The increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmos-
phere is an environmental threat and an important burning
issue in our society. Carbon dioxide is kinetically and thermo-
dynamically stable, but the utilization of carbon dioxide as
a chemical feedstock provides interesting organic structures
with high atom economy.[1] Among these, carbonates are im-
portant as they can be used in various applications, including
additives in fuel, aprotic solvents, monomers in polymeric
structures, electrolytes in secondary batteries, and raw materi-
als in various reactions.[2] In the past decades, numerous cata-
lytic systems have been developed for the catalytic fixation of
carbon dioxide such as metal–salen complexes,[3] metal
oxides,[4] N-heterocyclic carbenes,[5] N-heterocyclic olefins,[6]
and Schiff bases.[7] However, most of the catalytic systems
suffer from one or more disadvantages such as low catalytic
stability and reactivity, use of co-solvents, use of transition
metals, harsh reaction conditions, catalyst degradation, and
complicated methods for the synthesis of the catalysts.
chemicals is considered cutting edge technology. ILs possess
prominent features such as high thermal and chemical stability,
non-flammability, low vapor pressure, easy recyclability, biode-
gradability, functional variability, and high solubility.[8] The cap-
ture and fixation of carbon dioxide by using task-specific ILs is
also a well-established area of research.[9] Although various ILs
have been synthesized and applied for carbon dioxide fixation,
most of the processes for the synthesis of ILs require toxic re-
agents, and in some cases, the ILs are non-biodegradable.[9b]
Chemical production that involves low value and readily
available biomass feedstock with low environmental impact on
the chemical processes helps to maintain the sustainability of
the environment.[10] Amino acids (AAs) and choline chloride
(Ch) are both abundant and widely available in nature; there-
fore, ILs derived from these compounds are considered non-
toxic and biodegradable.[11] These types of ILs have also shown
excellent activity for the dissolution of lignin and DNA.[12] Addi-
tionally, the presence of a free amine group on the amino
acids in ILs make them highly potent for the capture of carbon
dioxide; therefore, they have been widely studied.[13] Recently,
Dai et al. reported that amino-acid-based ILs act as multimolar
absorbing materials of carbon dioxide through the carboxylate
group and the amine group.[13g]
Ionic liquids (ILs) are a new emerging research area. The use
of ILs for the fixation of carbon dioxide into value-added
[a] V. B. Saptal, Prof. B. M. Bhanage
Department of Chemistry
Institute of Chemical Technology
Matunga, Mumbai-400 019 (India)
Fax: (+91)22-33611020
E-mail: bm.bhanage@gmail.com
bm.bhanage@ictmumbai.edu.in
Catalysts bearing hydrogen bond donor (HBD) ability and
amine functional groups are considered as highly active for
the cycloaddition reaction of carbon dioxide with epoxides.
The presence of a HBD activates the oxirane ring and pro-
motes the cycloaddition reaction, whereas the existence of an
amine group activates the carbon dioxide molecule. To date,
various HBD catalysts such as silanols, phenols, glycerol, pen-
taerythritol, chitosan, lignin, cellulose, hydroxyl-functionalized
imidazoles, urea-based ILs, pyridine alcohols, and covalent or-
ganic frameworks (COFs)[14] have been developed for the syn-
Supporting Information for this article, including experimental details for
the synthesis of the ionic liquids and the NMR spectra for the spectro-
scopic study of the cycloaddition reactions, can be found under:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201601228.
This publication is part of a Special Issue around the “1st Carbon Dioxide
Conversion Catalysis” (CDCC-1) conference. A link to the issue’s Table of
Contents will appear here once it is complete.
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thesis of cyclic carbonates. However, very few methods have
been reported for the synthesis of carbonates under mild con-
ditions (low temperature and low pressure).[15] These methods
suffer from some disadvantages such as multiple processes re-
quired for the syntheses of the catalysts, non-biodegradable
catalysts, and activity for only one type of reaction. The fixation
of carbon dioxide using organocatalysts is considered a cutting
edge technology compared with other methods[3c] owing to
the robust, cheap, nontoxic, and air stable organic molecules,
which do not necessarily need inert reaction conditions.[15e] Al-
though metal-containing catalysts show excellent activity to-
wards carbon dioxide fixation, they are not considered as sus-
tainable because non-biodegradable waste is generated
during their use, which could contaminate the products.[14i]
The presence of a hydroxyl and an amine functional group
(bifunctional) in [Ch][AA] IL encouraged us to use it for cataly-
sis. Following our previous study towards the development of
a catalytic system for the fixation of carbon dioxide,[16] herein,
we report the synthesis of environmentally benign, cost-
effective, and robust bifunctional ILs derived from choline and
amino acids and their application for the catalytic fixation of
carbon dioxide into cyclic carbonates and quinazoline-
2,4(1H,3H)-diones. These synthesized ILs show high activity to-
wards the fixation of CO2 to form cyclic carbonates at atmos-
pheric pressure. The catalyst and co-catalyst in the binary mix-
ture are recyclable. This developed methodology is environ-
mentally benign under solvent- and transition-metal-free con-
ditions. Additionally, the synthesized ILs are nontoxic, recycla-
ble, and biodegradable.
Scheme 1. The synthesis of the ionic liquids (ILs) and their structures.
Results and Discussion
Nine ILs based on choline and amino acids were synthesized
according to a method modified from the literature, as shown
in Scheme 1.[12] A simple and straightforward method was used
for the synthesis of the ILs, in which the chlorine atoms of
choline chloride were replaced by potassium hydroxide to
afford choline hydroxide. Choline hydroxide reacted with the
amino acids in a simple neutralization reaction to produce the
ILs in excellent yield (>95%). This method for the synthesis of
bifunctional ILs is environmentally friendly and more economi-
cal because of the safe byproducts, KCl and water, as well as
the use of the cheap, easily available, and harmless choline
and the amino acids as reactants. The synthesized ILs had
a free amine group on the amino acid and a free hydroxyl
group on the choline and could be used in catalytic reactions.
The ILs were characterized by using various analytical tech-
niques including nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectros-
copy (Supporting Information, Section S4) and FTIR (Figure 1).
Because the stability of a catalyst is important to avoid the
contamination of the product, the synthesized ILs were further
characterized by using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
(Figure 2). The ILs were found to be stable up to 2008C.
Figure 1. Comparative IR data of the synthesized [Ch][AA] ILs presence the
functional group.
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Next, we observed that the mixing of [Ch][Pro] IL with a quater-
nary ammonium salt such as tetrabutylammonium bromide
(TBAB) generated deep eutectic solvents (DESs) with a low vis-
cosity.[12c] Surprisingly, with this binary mixture of IL and TBAB,
a good yield of cyclic carbonates was observed at room tem-
perature and atmospheric pressure of carbon dioxide (Table 1,
entry 3). Co-catalysts such as tetrabutylammonium iodide
(TBAI) and KI were also studied for the cycloaddition reaction.
TBAI was found to be more active than KI (Table 1, entries 4–
5). Increased yields of cyclic carbonates were obtained by in-
creasing the temperature of the reaction system (Table 1, en-
tries 6–7). The effect of various ILs on the cycloaddition reac-
tion was investigated at 708C. Excellent yields of cyclic carbon-
ate were observed using various ILs (Table 1, entries 8–16).
Among them, [Ch][His] was found to be the most active and
provided yields of cyclic carbonates of up to 92% owing to
the presence and basic nature of the histidine (Table 1,
entry 13). The high activity of [Ch][His] may be owing to the
presence of another acidic proton on the imidazole ring, which
could make it easier to open the epoxide ring. The increase in
reaction temperature did not improve the yield of the carbo-
nates (Table 1, entry 14). As a result, we concluded that 708C
was the optimal temperature for maximum conversion to the
cyclic carbonates. The use of TBAI only provided a negligible
amount of carbonate; hence, we decided that the ILs and TBAI
show a synergistic effect on the activation of the epoxide as
well as carbon dioxide (Table 1, entry 17). Next, we studied the
effect of increasing the carbon dioxide pressure to 1 MPa on
the cycloaddition reaction at room temperature. A good yield
was obtained when [Ch][His] was used as the catalyst and TBAI
was used as the co-catalyst (Table 1, entry 18). An excellent
yield (up to 98%) of cyclic carbonates was obtained at 708C
(Table 1, entry 19). Next, we studied the effect of IL loading on
the cycloaddition reaction. We found that at the atmospheric
pressure of carbon dioxide and the catalyst loading play a criti-
cal role. A decreased carbonate yield was obtained with de-
creasing catalyst loading (Figure 3). The kinetic studies for the
synthesis of cyclic carbonates were performed using the [Ch]
Figure 2. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the synthesized ILs showing
the thermal stability of the [Ch][AA] IL up to 2008C.
Catalytic performance of [Ch][AA] ILs for the synthesis of
cyclic carbonates
To investigate the catalytic activity of the synthesized ILs, we
investigated these ILs as catalysts for the synthesis of cyclic
carbonates. Initially, the reaction of carbon dioxide with epi-
chlorohydrin was used as the model reaction to study the vari-
ous parameters at an atmospheric pressure of carbon dioxide
(Table 1). The formation of cyclic carbonates was not observed
without the use of ILs and co-catalysts (Table 1, entry 1–2).
Table 1. Catalyst screening for the synthesis of cyclic carbonates.[a]
Entry Catalyst
Co-cat. T [8C] Conversion [%][b] Selectivity [%][b]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
–
–
–
25
25
25
25
25
50
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
80
70
70
70
25
70
70
80
–
–
–
–
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][Gly]
[Ch][Val]
[Ch][Ala]
[Ch][Ser]
[Ch][Tyr]
[Ch][His]
[Ch][His]
[Ch][Try]
TBAB
TBAI
KI
58
65
60
72
87
75
73
77
81
85
92
92
90
86
29
73
98
96
98
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
[Ch][4-OH-Pro] TBAI
–
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
TBAI
18[c] [Ch][His]
19[c] [Ch][His]
20[d] [Ch][His]
21[e] [Ch][His]
[a] Reaction conditions: epichlorohydrin (20 mmol), IL/co-catalyst
(20:20 mol%), 30 h, 1 atm CO2. [b] Determined by GC and GC–MS.
[c] 1 MPa (CO2). [d] [Ch][His]/TBAI (10:10 mol%), 2 h, 1 MPa CO2. [e–d] [Ch]
[His]/TBAI (5:5 mol%), 2 h, 1 MPa CO2.
Figure 3. The effect of the [Ch][His] loading on the cycloaddition reaction;
epichlorohydrin (20 mmol), [Ch][His]/TBAI, 30 h, 1 atm CO2.
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Table 2. Investigation of different substrates for the synthesis of cyclic
carbonates [Ch][AA].[a]
Entry Substrate
Product
Conversion
[%][b]
Selectivity
[%][b]
1
92
99
2
3
85
88
99
99
Figure 4. The effect of reaction time on the conversion of oxirane to cyclic
carbonate; [Ch][His]/TBAI (20:20 mol%), 1 atm CO2.
4
5
78
84
99
99
[His] and TBAI catalyst mixture ([Ch][His]/TBAI). The results indi-
cated that 30 h is required for maximum conversion to cyclic
carbonate (Figure 4). Next, we studied the effect of time and
catalyst loading at a slightly elevated temperature and at
1 MPa pressure of carbon dioxide. A decrease in the catalyst
loading ([Ch][His]/TBAI 10:10 mol%) at 1 MPa pressure of
carbon dioxide resulted in an excellent yield of up to 96%
(Table 1, entry 20). A further decrease of the catalyst loading
([Ch][His]/TBAI 5:5 mol%) and a slight increase of the tempera-
ture to 808C resulted in an excellent yield of up to 98%
(Table 1, entry 21).
6
7
8
9
89
83
80
87
99
99
99
99
After optimization of the reaction conditions, we further ex-
tended this protocol for the study of different substrates for
the formation of cyclic carbonates (Table 2). Various epoxides
were reacted with carbon dioxide to yield cyclic carbonates
under the optimized reaction conditions. [Ch][His] IL was used
because of its higher reactivity for the formation of cyclic car-
bonates compared to the other ILs. Various aliphatic acyclic ep-
oxides provided good yields of cyclic carbonates (Table 2, en-
tries 1–3). In particular, the use of epichlorohydrin resulted in
an excellent carbonate yield of up to 92%. Cyclic epoxides
such as cyclopentyl oxide and cyclohexyl oxide also provided
a good yield of cyclic carbonates (Table 2, entries 4–5). Next,
we studied the aromatic epoxide styrene oxide, which showed
good yields of styrene carbonate (Table 2, entry 6). Similarly,
various aromatic epoxides functionalized with F, Cl, and Br sub-
stituents provided good yields of cyclic carbonates (Table 2,
entries 6–9). Most importantly, the cyclic carbonates obtained
using this protocol were obtained with high selectivity
(>99%) and without any side products. The hydroxyl function-
al group in the ILs acts as a HBD catalyst and activates the ep-
oxide ring, whereas the presence of the amine functional
group of the amino acid activates the carbon dioxide mole-
cules, resulting in a synergistic effect for the cycloaddition re-
action.
[a] Reaction conditions: Epoxide (10 mmol), [Ch][His]/TBAI (10:10 mol%),
30 h, 1 atm CO2. [b] Determined by GC and GC–MS.
at approximately 1781 cmÀ1, which indicated the formation of
a cyclic carbonate (Figure 5d). A new peak appeared at ap-
proximately 1635.31 cmÀ1 owing to the interaction between
the carboxylate anion and the carbonate.[13 g] The intensity of
the carbonyl peak at approximately 1781 cmÀ1 continued to
increase up to 30 h (Figure 5e to g). The effect of the HBD,
which resulted in broadening of the peak resulting from the
hydroxyl group, was also observed and discussed in the Sup-
porting Information (Figure S1).
On the basis of previous reports and observed experimental
data, we established a tentative mechanism for the cycloaddi-
tion reaction between carbon dioxide and an epoxide to cyclic
carbonates catalyzed by ILs containing a HBD and an amine
functional group (Figure 6).[14] The coupling reaction between
the carbon dioxide and the epoxide is initiated by the interac-
tion between the hydroxyl group of the choline, which helps
to polarize the CÀO bond of the epoxide. Subsequently, the
nucleophile of the co-catalyst attacks from the less hindered
We investigated the effect of different functional group on
the cycloaddition reaction by using IR spectroscopy (Figure 5).
Comparative IR data of the epoxide, ILs, and mixtures of both
were taken at various intervals. After 2 h, a new peak appeared
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Figure 5. IR spectroscopic study based on kinetic data (a) epichlorohydrin, (b) [Ch][His], (c) mixture of epichlorohydrin and [Ch][His] reaction mixture after
(d) 2, (e) 4, (f) 12, and (g) 30 h and (h) the IR spectra of the carbonate after the reaction.
side of the coordinated epoxide to open the ring. Then, the
carbon dioxide molecule adsorbed by the amine group of the
amino acid attacks the oxyanion of the epoxide to generate
a carbonate anion, which subsequently undergoes ring closing
to generate the cyclic carbonate. The effect of the HBD on the
activation of the epoxide was investigated by using IR spec-
troscopy (Figure S1). Choline chloride was used as the refer-
ence HBD catalyst; the IR spectra of the epoxide, choline chlo-
ride, and a mixture of both were taken. The broadening of the
peak attributed to the hydroxyl group of choline chloride and
its shift from approximately 3232.12 to 3338.43 cmÀ1 clearly in-
dicates the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding be-
tween the epoxide and the choline chloride, which is responsi-
ble for the ring opening of the epoxide. The effect of the HBD
catalysis was further explored by using NMR spectroscopy (Fig-
ure S2). After the addition of epoxide (epichlorohydrin) to
a choline chloride solution (reference HBD catalyst in deuterat-
ed dimethylsulfoxide), the hydroxyl peak at 5.69 ppm com-
pletely disappears, which is clear evidence that hydrogen
bonding of the catalyst plays a crucial role in the activation of
the epoxide.
Figure 6. Proposed reaction mechanism for the synthesis of cyclic carbonate
using [Ch][AA]/TBAI as a catalyst system.
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Table 3. Synthesis of quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones using ILs.[a]
Entry IL
Substrate
Product
Yield [%][b]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
–
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
–
55
51
55
59
60
83
71
78
81
[Ch][Gly]
[Ch][Val]
[Ch][Ala]
[Ch][Ser]
[Ch][Tyr]
[Ch][His]
[Ch][Try]
[Ch][Pro]
[Ch][4-OH-Pro]
Figure 7. Recyclability of the ILs for the synthesis the cyclic carbonates. Re-
action conditions: 1 atm CO2, epoxide (10 mmol), [Ch][His]/TBAI
(10:10 mol%), 30 h; 1 MPa CO2, epoxide (10 mmol), [Ch][His]/TBAI
(5:5 mol%), 2 h, 808C.
10
11
12
13
[Ch][His]
[Ch][His]
[Ch][His]
70
69
56
The recyclability of a catalysts is an important factor. We in-
vestigated the recyclability of the synthesized [Ch][AA] cata-
lysts (Figure 7). [Ch][His] showed the highest activity towards
the cycloaddition reaction of epichlorohydrin and CO2, and
was used as a model catalyst to investigate the recyclability.
The recyclability tests were performed at atmospheric pressure
and 1 MPa pressure of carbon dioxide. At atmospheric pressure
the activity of the catalyst decreased slightly, which might be
owing to the longer reaction time. At 1 MPa pressure of
carbon dioxide the activity of the catalyst showed excellent
yield after five cycles with negligible loss of activity.
[a] Reaction conditions: 2-aminobenzonitrile (2 mmol), ILs (1 g), 1008C,
20 h, CO2 (2 MPa). [b] Isolated yield.
other quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones. 2-aminobenzonitrile-
based substrates containing methyl, chloro, and nitro function-
al group were reacted with carbon dioxide to afford the corre-
sponding quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones in good yields
(Table 3, entries 11–13). The acid–base nature of the ILs effec-
tively activates the 2-aminobenzonitrile and carbon dioxide
and provides good yields of the quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones
After the successful application of ILs for the synthesis of
cyclic carbonates, we extended this methodology for the syn-
thesis
of
quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones.
Quinazoline-
2,4(1H,3H)-diones are very important intermediates in the field
of pharmaceuticals.[17] The synthesis of quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-
dione from 2-aminobenzonitrile and carbon dioxide is consid-
ered an important pathway because of the direct utilization of
carbon dioxide as well as the high atom economy. Although
various methods have been reported for this transformation,
they require high pressure, high temperature, or the use of
non-biodegradable transition metals or toxic catalysts, which
may contaminate the product.[18] Hence, there is an immediate
need to develop a catalytic system that is environmentally
friendly and operates under mild reaction conditions.
Conclusions
A simple, sustainable, cost-effective, and energy-efficient proto-
col has been developed for the chemical fixation of carbon di-
oxide into cyclic carbonates as well as quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-
diones using choline- and amino-acid-based ionic liquids (ILs).
The binary system based on [Ch][AA]/TBAI generated deep eu-
tectic solvents (DESs), which were found to be highly active for
the catalysis of the cycloaddition of carbon dioxide with epox-
ides at atmospheric pressure. These catalysts can effectively ac-
tivate epoxides through a synergistic effect of a hydroxyl
group at the choline cation and carbon dioxide at the amine
anion of the amino acids. The catalyst and the co-catalyst are
both recyclable up to five cycles without loss of catalytic activi-
ty. Additionally, the ILs were synthesized from environmentally
friendly starting materials that are highly biodegradable and
have negligible toxicity, which is a promising for the fixation of
carbon dioxide.
As synthesized [Ch][AA] ILs were utilized for the synthesis of
quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-dione (2) from 2-aminobenzonitrile (1)
and carbon dioxide (2 MPa) at 1008C (Table 3). No quinazoline-
2,4(1H,3H)-dione was obtained without the use of ILs (Table 3,
entry 1). [Ch][Gly] provided a good yield of 2. Further, we
screened various [Ch][AA] ILs (Table 3, entries 2–10) for the syn-
thesis of quinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-dione and found that the ILs
containing proline, tryptophan, and histidine were highly reac-
tive. Among the screened ILs, it was found that [Ch][His] has
excellent activity and provides yields of up to 83% (Table 3,
entry 7). The developed methodology was also utilized to in-
vestigate the use of different substrates for the synthesis of
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Acknowledgements
V.B.S. acknowledges to the University Grant Commission (UGC),
India for providing Senior Research Fellowship (SRF) and TEQIP
for providing funding.
Keywords: biodegradable · carbon dioxide · cycloaddition
reaction · epoxide · ionic liquids
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Received: September 4, 2016
Published online on && &&, 0000
ChemSusChem 2016, 9, 1 – 8
www.chemsuschem.org
7
ꢀ 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
&
These are not the final page numbers! ÞÞ

FULL PAPERS
V. B. Saptal, B. M. Bhanage*
Bifunctional Catalysts! Ionic liquids
containing a quaternary alkyl ammoni-
um cation and an amine anion are pre-
pared and applied as organocatalysts
for the chemical fixation of carbon diox-
ide to form cyclic carbonates and quina-
zoline-2,4(1H,3H)-diones. The presence
of a hydroxyl group and a free amine
group in the ILs has a synergistic effect
on the activation of epoxides and
carbon dioxide and the subsequent cy-
cloaddition reactions.
&& – &&
Bifunctional Ionic Liquids Derived
from Biorenewable Sources as
Sustainable Catalysts for Fixation of
Carbon Dioxide
&
ChemSusChem 2016, 9, 1 – 8
www.chemsuschem.org
8
ꢀ 2016 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
ÝÝ These are not the final page numbers!