Synergy of boric acid and added salts in the catalytic dehydration of hexoses to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in water

Article abstract of DOI:10.1039/c0gc00355g

In combination with various salts boric acid, B(OH)₃, was shown to be an efficient, weak Lewis acid catalyst in the aqueous dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) due to strong complexation between the boron atom and the hexoses. In the dehydration of a highly concentrated aqueous fructose solution (30 wt%), a HMF yield of 60% was achieved at 92% fructose conversion and a HMF selectivity of 65% with 100 g L^-1 B(OH) ₃ and 50 g L^-1 sodium chloride in the aqueous phase and methyl-isobutylketone (MIBK) as extracting solvent. Furthermore, the dehydration of glucose resulted in a yield of 14% HMF at 41% glucose conversion after 5 h at similar conditions. These results are highly competitive with currently reported aqueous HMF dehydration systems. In combination with the non-corrosive and non-toxic nature of the boric acid, compared to other well known homogeneous catalysts applicable for the dehydration process (e.g., H₂SO ₄ and HCl), clearly, the boric acid-salt mixture is a very attractive catalyst system.

Full text of DOI:10.1039/c0gc00355g

View Article Online / Journal Homepage / Table of Contents for this issue
Dynamic Article Links
Green Chemistry
Cite this: Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109
www.rsc.org/greenchem
PAPER
Synergy of boric acid and added salts in the catalytic dehydration of hexoses
to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in water†
Thomas S. Hansen, Jerrik Mielby and Anders Riisager*
Received 23rd July 2010, Accepted 11th November 2010
DOI: 10.1039/c0gc00355g
In combination with various salts boric acid, B(OH)3, was shown to be an efficient, weak Lewis
acid catalyst in the aqueous dehydration of fructose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) due to
strong complexation between the boron atom and the hexoses. In the dehydration of a highly
concentrated aqueous fructose solution (30 wt%), a HMF yield of 60% was achieved at 92%
fructose conversion and a HMF selectivity of 65% with 100 g L-1 B(OH)3 and 50 g L-1 sodium
chloride in the aqueous phase and methyl-isobutylketone (MIBK) as extracting solvent.
Furthermore, the dehydration of glucose resulted in a yield of 14% HMF at 41% glucose
conversion after 5 h at similar conditions. These results are highly competitive with currently
reported aqueous HMF dehydration systems. In combination with the non-corrosive and
non-toxic nature of the boric acid, compared to other well known homogeneous catalysts
applicable for the dehydration process (e.g., H2SO4 and HCl), clearly, the boric acid-salt mixture is
a very attractive catalyst system.
1. Introduction
Development of novel CO2 neutral and sustainable synthetic
strategies to supply fuel and chemicals are necessary as a
response to the ongoing concern about the climate changing
along with depletion of fossil fuel reserves. Such demands can
be met by a shift from the petrochemical industry to one based
on biomass as the carbon source.1–6
An attractive compound that is obtainable directly from the
dehydration of carbohydrates, such as fructose and glucose,
is 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). The molecule constitutes
a platform compound that can be converted into a wide
range of industrially important chemicals.7,8 In this context, the
oxidation product of HMF, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDA),
is of specific interest as it can potentially replace terephthalic
acid in polyester manufacturing (Scheme 1).9
Scheme 1 The reaction path from D-fructose to a terephthalic acid
polyester analogue of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDA).
Currently the most successful efforts to produce HMF have
been done in ionic liquids,10–12 high-boiling organic solvents
(e.g. dimethylsulfoxide, DMSO),13,14 by using strong and highly
corrosive mineral acids such as HCl, H2SO4 and H3PO4 with an
organic solvent to extract the HMF as it is produced in a two
phase system5,15–17 or by employing microwaves as the heating
source.18–20
aqueous fructose solutions employing only a weak, non-toxic
and non-corrosive acid, namely boric acid (pKa = 9.27, T =
293.15 K)22 as the dehydration catalyst.
2. Experimental
Herein, we report our results from the development of a
novel21 method to produce HMF from highly concentrated
2.1 Materials
Fructose (99%), glucose (≥99.5%), B(OH)3 (99.8%), levulinic
acid (98%), formic acid (99.8%), methyl-isobutylketone (MIBK)
(≥99.0%), and tetrahydrofuran (THF) (99.9%) were purchased
from Sigma-Aldrich. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (>99%) was
purchased from SAFC and sucrose (99%) from Alfa Aesar and
all used without further purification. Similarly, all salts applied
for the salting-out experiments were acquired in p.a. quality and
Centre for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Department of
Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby,
Denmark. E-mail: ar@kemi.dtu.dk, thomh@kemi.dtu.dk; Tel: (+45) 45
25 22 33
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Tables with ex-
perimental values reported in the figures. See DOI: 10.1039/c0gc00355g
This journal is
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109–114 | 109
©

View Article Online
used as received. Distilled water was used for preparation of all
aqueous solutions.
dehydration reaction of fructose to HMF. However, boric acid
forms strong chelates with diols and hexoses, e.g. fructose and
glucose,24–26 shifting the equilibrium reactions towards a doubly
coordinated borate–hexose complex. This complexation results
in an overall release of protons leading to acidification of the
aqueous media and so facilitates the acid catalyzed dehydration
(Scheme 2).
2.2 Dehydration of sugars to HMF
As a general procedure the dehydration of fructose, glucose or
sucrose was performed in a sealed pressure stable glass tube
(Ace, pressure limit: 20 bar) charged with an aqueous solution
of the sugar (30 wt%, 3.0 mL, 5.7 mmol), a specified mass of
solid B(OH)3 and a magnet. In experiments with organic solvent
extraction, these were used in the volume ratio 4 : 1 (org : aq). The
tube with the reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath
for a specified time under magnetic stirring (420 rpm) at a fixed
temperature. After the reaction, the tube was removed from the
oil bath and cooled to room temperature before a sample was
taken for analysis.
2.3 Product analysis
Reaction samples from the fructose, glucose and sucrose ex-
periments were filtered through a syringe filter (VWR, 0.45 mm
PTFE), mixed with an internal standard (i-PrOH) for calibration
and filtered again, prior to analysis by high pressure liquid
chromatography (HPLC, Agilent 1200 series, Bio-Rad Aminex
HPX-87H, 300 mm ¥ 7.8 mm pre-packed column). A 0.005 M
H2SO4 mobile phase was employed as eluent at 60 ◦C with a
flow rate of 0.6 mL min-1.
During sucrose analysis the substrate was hydrolyzed to
glucose and fructose on the HPLC column resulting in a poor
elution profile on the HPLC chromatogram. Thus, in order to
analyze experiments with sucrose, an aqueous 30 wt% solution
was hydrolyzed at 50 ◦C for 6 h in 0.05 M HCl and subsequently
analyzed via HPLC. The resulting amount of glucose and
fructose was used to determine the initial amount of sucrose.
Concentrations of products were determined from calibration
curves obtained with reference samples and corrected with an
internal standard, while product yields (%), product selectivities
(%) and fructose conversions (%) were based on the initial
concentration of sugars and calculated as:
Scheme 2 Equilibria between boric acid and hexoses in water.
In principle, the pH will gradually increase during the HMF
dehydration reaction and return to a value determined by
the boric acid-water equilibrium when all sugars are con-
verted. However, by-product formation of formic acid (FA)
and levulinic acid (LA) by competitive rehydration of HMF
during the reaction27,28 prevent the pH from increasing. From a
downstream HMF processing point of view, this phenomenon
could prove very useful, as the isolation of LA and FA, which
are also valuable by-products, results in a HMF product solution
which is not nearly as acidic compared to using mineral acids.
This is likely to make the overall HMF production process
more economically attractive by reducing costs related to both
neutralization and the use of corrosion resistant materials.
Product conc.
3.2 Titration of fructose and glucose with boric acid
Product yield =
×100%
Initial sugar conc.
A 1.88 M aqueous solution of fructose and a 1.93 M solution
of glucose (both ~30 wt%) were titrated with solid B(OH)3 to
the point of saturation at room temperature to monitor the
associated pH change as a function of the B(OH)3 concentration
(Fig. 1). As reference, pH was measured in a B(OH)3 saturated
(50 g L-1) aqueous solution (pH = 3.65).
⎛
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎞
Sugar conc.
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎜
Sugar conversion = 1−
×100%
⎜
Initial sugar conc.
Product yield
Product selectivity =
×100%
Sugar conversion
A rapid decrease in pH in the 30 wt% sugar solutions
was observed upon the first boric acid addition which then
levelled out as more B(OH)3 was added. The change was more
pronounced for fructose than glucose suggesting a stronger
complexation between B(OH)3 and fructose than with glucose,
in accordance with previous findings.25
The mass balances did not add up to 100% due to formation
of insoluble polymers (humins), soluble polymers and other
unidentified products during the dehydration process.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Boric acid
3.3 Dehydration of fructose with boric acid
Boric acid, B(OH)3 or H3BO3, acts as a Lewis acid in aqueous
solutions forming tetrahydroxyborate and a proton (or hydro-
nium ion) upon reaction with water. The nature of the boric
acid suggests (based on previous published results by Kuster and
Temmink23) that it is too weak an acid to efficiently catalyze the
The dehydration of fructose to HMF is known to proceed even
without the addition of catalyst at elevated temperatures and
prolonged reaction times.14 However, when the dehydration of
fructose is carried out in an aqueous environment alone high
110 | Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109–114
This journal is
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
©

View Article Online
conducted varying the catalyst amount in a 30 wt% fructose
solution in order to investigate how the B(OH)3 concentration
influenced the dehydration of highly concentrated fructose
solutions (Fig. 2).
A clear relation between the B(OH)3 concentration and the
fructose conversion was found, showing an increase in fructose
conversion with increasing B(OH)3 concentration. The most
commonly used catalysts for the dehydration process are strong
acids, as previously mentioned, so increasing the amount of
the weak Lewis acid B(OH)3 was expected to result in a higher
fructose conversion and HMF yield.
3.4 Synergetic catalytic effect between boric acid and salts
When sugars are dehydrated to HMF in acidic, aqueous-organic
systems with dissolved salts, the salts usually facilitate only a
salting-out effect of the formed HMF to the organic phase and
no significant catalytic effect.16 In accordance with this, only a
weak catalytic effect of NaCl was found in the dehydration of
30 wt% aqueous fructose solution (Fig. 3).
Fig. 1 Titration of a 1.88 M fructose solution and a 1.93 M glucose
solution (both ~30 wt%) with solid B(OH)3. Between additions of boric
acid, the system was allowed sufficient time to stabilize before pH
measurements.
HMF yields and selectivities are difficult to achieve. One way to
overcome this problem is by employing an organic phase that
extracts HMF as it is produced thereby reducing the rehydration
of HMF to FA and LA, as well as humin formation to some
extent.15,16 To separate this inherent catalytic effect from any
effects of the added catalyst, reaction temperature and time
was initially investigated in order to find conditions where the
non-catalyzed reaction was negligible. Here it was found, that
reaction of a 30 wt% fructose solution at 150 ◦C for 45 min with
MIBK as the extracting solvent with a MIBK : aqueous volume
ratio of 4 : 1 possessed minimal intrinsic activity resulting in only
5% fructose conversion and 2% HMF yield (Fig. 2). Notably,
these conditions are, however, still suitable for HMF production
if a dehydration catalyst is added (vide infra).
Fig. 3 Dehydration of 30 wt% fructose solutions with MIBK as
extracting solvent and no catalyst or added NaCl and/or B(OH)3
(150 ◦C, 45 min, MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1).
The addition of 50 g L-1 NaCl to the reaction mixture resulted
in a HMF yield of 5% at 13% fructose conversion compared
to 2% HMF at 5% fructose conversion without NaCl present.
This weak catalytic effect is believed to arise from the slight
acidification observed when salts are added to a concentrated
solution of fructose. The dehydration reaction of fructose to
HMF is highly dependent on the pH in solution, hence a small
decrease in pH is expected to have a positive influence on the
rate of fructose conversion and HMF formation.
Surprisingly the addition of NaCl in low concentrations
together with B(OH)3 was found not only to increase the HMF
yield, due to the salting-out effect as described by Roma´n-
Leshkov and Dumesic,16 but also to significantly increase the
Fig. 2 Dehydration of 30 wt% fructose solutions with varied B(OH)3
concentrations and MIBK as extracting solvent (150 ◦C, 45 min,
MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1).
◦
fructose conversion and HMF yield. Thus, reaction at 150 C
for 45 min with 50 g L-1 NaCl, 100 g L-1 B(OH)3 and MIBK as
extracting solvent (MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1) resulted
in a fructose conversion of 70% and 46% HMF yield (Fig.
3). The synergistic effect of using both B(OH)3 and NaCl is
believed to occur as a result of the increased acidity of aqueous
Using the reaction conditions where the intrinsic conversion
to HMF was found to be minimal (i.e. 150 ◦C, 45 min,
MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1), a set of experiments were
This journal is
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109–114 | 111
©

View Article Online
Table 1 Dehydration of 30 wt% fructose solutions with boric acid,
variations in HMF yields and selectivities within the estimated
experiment error were observed. Similar trends were observed
in the control experiments conducted without B(OH)3 in order
to test the activity of the salts alone (results not presented here).
Interestingly, the high R values, representing the distribution
of HMF in the organic phase relative to the aqueous phase,
observed in experiments with sulfate salts did not result in
correspondingly high relative HMF yields and selectivities, as
would be expected when the mean residence time of HMF
in the aqueous solution was reduced due to diminished rehy-
dration. The same conclusion was reached by Roma´n-Leshkov
and Dumesic16 in their investigation of fructose dehydration
reactions employing different salts and a strong mineral acid as
the dehydration catalyst, thus suggesting the sulfate anion has
some influence on the dehydration reactivity, e.g. shifting the
pyranose-furanose equilibrium.
various salts and MIBK extractiona
Fructose
HMF
HMF
R valueb
Entry Salt
conversion (%) yield (%) selectivity (%) (MIBK : aq)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
LiCl
LiBr
LiNO3 49
NaCl 70
NaBr 60
NaNO3 49
Na2SO4 90
KCl
KBr
KI
KNO3 49
K2SO4 89
MgCl2 81
AlCl3 100
FeCl3 99
69
61
45
38
21
46
38
20
41
44
39
35
20
40
52
21
36
66
62
42
65
64
41
45
65
62
63
40
46
65
21
36
1.1
1.0
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.7
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.8
1.5
1.1
1.1
1.1
67
63
56
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
In combination, the strong Lewis acidic salts, AlCl3 or FeCl3,
and B(OH)3 (entries 14 and 15) resulted in formation of large
amounts of polymers and the rehydration products FA and LA,
demonstrating that HMF was no longer the favored product.
a Reaction conditions: 100 g L-1 B(OH)3, 0.87 M salt with respect to the
anion, 45 min, 150 ◦C, MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1. b The R
value is the HMF distribution obtained between the MIBK phase and
the aqueous phase, i.e. [HMF]MIBK/[HMF]aq.
3.5 Boric acid-salt catalysis with common extracting solvents
Experiments with different organic extraction solvents were
conducted with 30 wt% fructose solutions at 150 ◦C for 45 min
with 100 g L-1 of B(OH)3 catalyst and 50 g L-1 NaCl using an
organic : aqueous volume ratio of 4 : 1. (Fig. 4).
B(OH)3 solutions in combination with salts, suggesting that the
salts stabilizes one or more of the charged intermediates and
products shown in Scheme 2. The acidifying effect of different
salts on boric acid has been correlated to the energy of hydration
by Shishido29 and shows an increase in acidity with increasing
hydration energy. As already mentioned, the addition of salt
to a concentrated fructose solution also results in a slight
acidification of the solution. Hence, several factors add up in the
observed synergy and complex behavior of NaCl and B(OH)3 in
the dehydration of aqueous fructose solutions to HMF.
An experiment was conducted in order to find the highest
obtainable HMF yield from a 30 wt% aqueous fructose solution
near full substrate conversion with the NaCl-containing catalytic
system. Increasing the reaction time to 90 min subsequently
resulted in a 92% fructose conversion, a 60% HMF yield and a
HMF selectivity of 65%.
A range of other salts, primarily containing alkali or alkaline
earth metal cations, were further employed in the dehydration
of fructose in order to investigate the influence of the salts on
the synergistic interplay with B(OH)3 (Table 1).
A clear relationship between the nature of the anion and
the resulting fructose conversion and HMF yield was observed.
Generally, sulfates (entries 7 and 12) resulted in high fructose
conversions and a high HMF distribution in the organic phase
but low HMF selectivities and yields. The phase distribution
selectivity is commonly expressed as the R value (calculated
as [HMF]org/[HMF]aq), which quantify the extracting power of
the organic solvent. In contrast, the nitrates (entries 3, 6 and
11) resulted in lower fructose conversions, HMF yields, HMF
selectivities and R values compared to the halide salts, which
were shown to be superior when comparing HMF yields and
selectivities. The size of the halide anions did not seem to affect
the selectivity towards HMF, whereas the fructose conversion
rate decreased in the order: chloride > bromide > iodide.
The nature of the alkali cation did also not seem to have
great importance on the dehydration reaction and only small
Fig. 4 Dehydration of 30 wt% fructose solutions wit◦h organic extrac-
tion solvents, 100 g L-1 B(OH)3 and 50 g L-1 NaCl (150 C, 45 min unless
otherwise mentioned, organic : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1).
Reactions with THF as extraction solvent were found to
be substantially slower than analogous reactions with MIBK.
This could be attributed to an effective decrease in the fructose
concentration at elevated temperatures as a result of miscibility
of THF and saline aqueous mixtures, or an increased ability
of THF to extract the produced organic acids compared to
MIBK. However, when increasing the reaction time with THF
as extracting solvent comparable HMF yields and selectivities
to experiments with MIBK were obtained.
112 | Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109–114
This journal is
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
©

View Article Online
Table 2 Dehydration of 30 wt% glucose solutions with and without
boric acid and NaCl and MIBK extraction
Table 3 Dehydration of 30 wt% sucrose solutions with boric acid, NaCl
and MIBK extractiona
Time Glucose con- HMF
(min) version (%) yield (%) ivity (%)
HMF select-
Time
Entry (min)
Glucose Fructose
HMF select-
Entry Catalyst
yield (%) yield (%) HMF yield (%) ivityb (%)
1a
2b
3a
4b
5a
6b
—
45
<1
8
13
36
24
41
0
2
1
10
3
0
1
2
3
4
45
90
105
120
40
40
39
38
17
7
4
21
30
32
33
64
70
70
70
B(OH)3 + NaCl 45
—
B(OH)3 + NaCl 180
—
25
10
27
13
34
180
3
300
a Reaction conditions: 100 g L-1 B(OH)3, 50 g L-1 NaCl, 150 ◦C,
MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1. b Selectivity from the fructose part
of sucrose.
B(OH)3 + NaCl 300
14
a Reaction conditions: 150 ◦C, MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1.
b Reaction conditions: 100 g L-1 B(OH)3, 50 g L-1 NaCl, 150 ◦C,
MIBK : aqueous volume ratio = 4 : 1.
catalytic B(OH)3-NaCl system. Interestingly, the glucose part
was not converted in any significant amount and could still be
detected after the dehydration reaction. At prolonged reaction
times of 2 h at 150 ◦C with a 30 wt% aqueous sucrose solution,
94% of the initial fructose units were converted resulting in
a good HMF yield of 33% from sucrose corresponding to a
70% selectivity assuming that all HMF originated from fructose
(Table 3).31
THF is an interesting extraction solvent for the dehydration
reaction due to avoidance of humin formation which, if formed,
would impose a severe drawback from a process point of view.
Although the apparent HMF selectivity with THF was not
significantly higher than experiments with visible humin for-
mation, the selectivity was observed to increase with increasing
reaction time, most likely due to reversion of isomeric and dimer
forms of fructose. The disadvantage and concern of applying
THF is obviously its low flashpoint (-14 ◦C), its tendency
to form peroxides over time and the relatively high chemical
aggressiveness of THF fumes. Unfortunately, the latter made
longer term experiments (>75 min) impossible with our available
apparatus.
4. Conclusions
In this work, we have shown that the Lewis acid, boric acid
B(OH)3, is a very efficient catalyst in the dehydration of highly
concentrated aqueous fructose solutions to HMF. This result,
combined with desirable properties such as non-toxicity, low
corrosiveness, low acid strength and readily availability, makes
B(OH)3 a very attractive alternative to known catalysts for the
process.32 HMF selectivities and yields were further improved
by employing a combined catalytic system of B(OH)3 and
NaCl, which in combination showed a synergistic effect on the
dehydration reaction.
Boric acid in combination with NaCl was found to be less
efficient for the dehydration of glucose in water, which is also
generally considered to be a more challenging task to achieve.
Hence, only poor HMF yields were accomplished. However,
the catalytic system developed here performed much better than
the un-catalyzed reaction and could also be applied for highly
concentrated aqueous sucrose solutions.
This study is, to the best of our knowledge, the first to
demonstrate the use of boric acid in the dehydration of sugars
to HMF and to provide a detailed parameter study of the
dehydration process for fructose. A simple modification of
the catalytic system by addition of salt was shown to have a
synergistic effect of the dehydration of fructose to HMF allowing
good yields and selectivities of HMF to be reached.
Since boric acid is a weak Lewis acid, non-toxic, cheap and
already widely used in industrial processes it is desirable from an
industrial point of view compared to other mineral acids such as
HCl and H2SO4, which are highly corrosive. This could clearly
make future implementation of B(OH)3 in HMF production
attractive compared to other acids.
3.6 Dehydration of glucose with boric acid
Despite the ability to selectively form HMF from fructose, boric
acid proved ineffective in the dehydration of glucose to HMF.
Thus, dehydration of a 30 wt% glucose solution at 150 ◦C for 45
min with 100 g L-1 B(OH)3 and 50 g L-1 NaCl only resulted in
8% glucose conversion and a poor HMF yield of 2% (Table 2,
entry 2). Prolonging the reaction time to 3 h increased the HMF
yield somewhat to 10% at 36% glucose conversion compared to
the un-catalyzed reaction which only resulted in 1% HMF yield
at 13% glucose conversion (entries 3 and 4). Further increase of
the reaction time to 5 h resulted in a 41% glucose conversion and
14% HMF yield compared to the un-catalyzed experiment which
resulted in a 24% glucose conversion and 3% HMF yield (entries
5 and 6). Thus, even though the catalytic system performed
poorly on a glucose feedstock, the catalyzed reactions were
substantially better than the un-catalyzed ones.
The dehydration of glucose is much more difficult than the
dehydration of fructose, presumably because the first step in
the Lobry de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation30 of glucose
to fructose proceeds rapidly in basic media, but very slowly in
acidic media where HMF production is possible. Furthermore
the HMF selectivity increased over time indicating that some
intermediate hexoses formed from glucose were able to revert
back to fructose and dehydrate to HMF.
3.7 Dehydration of sucrose with boric acid
The disaccharide sucrose consists of a fructose unit and a glucose
unit connected via an a-1,4¢-glycosidic linkage which can be
hydrolyzed relatively easily. Indeed, the fructose part of the
disaccharide could selectively be converted into HMF by the
Acknowledgements
The work was supported by The Danish National Advanced
Technology Foundation and Novozymes A/S.
This journal is
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109–114 | 113
©

View Article Online
18 X. Qi, M. Watanabe, T. M. Aida and R. L. Smith, Jr., Green Chem.,
2008, 10, 799.
19 X. Qi, M. Watanabe, T. M. Aida and R. L. Smith, Jr., Catal.
Commun., 2008, 9, 2244.
20 T. S. Hansen, J. M. Woodley and A. Riisager, Carbohydr. Res., 2009,
344, 2568.
Notes and references
1 B. Kamm and M. Kamm, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 2004, 64,
137.
2 B. Kamm and M. Kamm, Adv. Biochem. Eng./Biotechnol., 2007, 105,
175.
3 C. H. Christensen, J. Rass-Hansen, C. C. Marsden, E. Taarning and
K. Egeblad, ChemSusChem, 2008, 1, 283.
4 A. J. Ragauskas, C. K. Williams, B. H. Davison, G. Britovsek, J.
Cairney, C. A. Eckert, W. J. Frederick Jr., J. P. Hallett, D. J. Leak, C.
L. Liotta, J. R. Mielenz, R. Murphy, R. Templer and T. Tschaplinski,
Science, 2006, 311, 484.
5 Y. Roma´n-Leshkov, C. J. Barrett, Z. Y. Liu and J. A. Dumesic, Nature,
2007, 447, 982.
6 M. Mascal and E. B. Nikitin, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2008, 47, 7924.
7 A. Corma, S. Iborra and A. Velty, Chem. Rev., 2007, 107, 2411.
8 C. Moreau, M. N. Belgacem and A. Gandini, Top. Catal., 2004, 27,
11.
21 Although B(OH)3 is mentioned as a possible catalyst for the
dehydration of fructose to HMF in at least three patent applications
by Dumesic et al.: WO 2007/146636, WO 2008/151178 A1 and US
2008/0033188 A1, no experimental results are reported.
22 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC, 2008–2009, 89, pp. 8–40.
23 B. F. M. Kuster and H. M. G. Temmink, Carbohydr. Res., 1977, 54,
185.
24 J. C. Norrild and H. Eggert, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1995, 117,
1479.
25 M. Makkee, A. P. G. Kieboom and H. van Bekkum, Recl. Trav.
Pays-Bas., 1985, 104, 230.
26 M. van Duin, J. A. Peters, A. P. C. Kieboom and H. van Bekkum,
Tetrahedron, 1984, 40, 2901.
27 L. Cottier and G. Descotes, Trends in Heterocycl. Chem., 1991, 2,
9 T. Werpy and G. Petersen, US DOE, 2004, No. DOE/GO-102004-
1992, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/35523.pdf.
10 H. Zhao, J. E. Holladay, H. Brown and Z. C. Zhang, Science, 2007,
316, 1597.
233.
ˇ
28 J. Horvat, B. Klaic´, B. Metelko and V. Sunjic´, Tetrahedron Lett., 1985,
11 G. Yong, Y. Zhang and J. Y. Ying, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2008, 47,
26, 2111.
9345.
29 S. Shishido, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 1952, 25, 199.
30 W. L. Evans, Chem. Rev., 1942, 31, 537.
31 To assume that all HMF originates from the fructose moiety of
sucrose is not entirely correct, as dehydration experiments with pure
glucose indeed indicated that a small amount was converted to HMF.
However, we have rationalized that this is the best way of indicating
the selectivity of the sucrose dehydration.
32 A. Boisen, T. B. Christensen, W. Fu, Y. Y. Gorbanev, T. S. Hansen,
J. S. Jensen, S. K. Klitgaard, A. Riisager, T. Sta˚hlberg and J. M.
Woodley, Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 2009, 87, 1318.
12 T. Sta˚hlberg, M. G. Sørensen and A. Riisager, Green Chem., 2010,
12, 321.
13 J. N. Chheda, Y. Roma´n-Leshkov and J. A. Dumesic, Green Chem.,
2007, 9, 342.
14 R. M. Musau and R. M. Munavu, Biomass, 1987, 13, 67.
15 Y. Roma´n-Leshkov, J. N. Chheda and J. A. Dumesic, Science, 2006,
312, 1933.
16 Y. Roma´n-Leshkov and J. A. Dumesic, Top. Catal., 2009, 52, 297.
17 B. F. M. Kuster, Starch/Staerke, 1990, 42, 314.
114 | Green Chem., 2011, 13, 109–114
This journal is
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
©