Full text of DOI:10.1002/oti.117

Occupational Therapy International, 7(3), 163–172, 2000 © Whurr Publishers Ltd
163
Enhancing graduate supervision in
occupational therapy education
through alternative delivery
SYLVIA RODGER Department of Occupational Therapy, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
G. TED BROWN Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario, Ottawa, Canada,
and Department of Occupational Therapy, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia
ABSTRACT: Sophisticated information technology systems have made distance
education both possible and highly desirable. Distance graduate research degrees have
contributed to the globalization of occupational therapy research. An exploratory
study using qualitative methodology was conducted to further understand the per-
spectives of four distance students and three supervisors. All students perceived
many personal and professional advantages in undertaking graduate study by dis-
tance; however, they acknowledged a number of challenges, such as social isolation
and lack of access to resources. Supervisors and students identified issues relating to
the university bureaucracy, infrastructure, time and isolation. A number of supports
that promote successful graduate education were identified, including associate
supervisors, on-campus residency and informal social networks. Students and super-
visors needed excellent time management and communication skills, and a commit-
ment to maintaining contact. Students needed to balance multiple demands and
supervisors needed to be student advocates. The small sample size in this study limits
generalizability of the findings. Further research into methods of optimizing the use of
information technology is required. An awareness of the issues and challenges is
essential if graduate distance education is to be a mutually beneficial experience for
supervisors and students.
Key words: distance education, flexible delivery, Internet.
Introduction
Distance education has become increasingly popular as new technologies
become accessible and the associated cost decreases (King, 1999). Distance

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education represents a variety of models that have in common the physical
separation of academic faculty and some or all of their students (Institute for
Distance Education, 1997). The digitalization of print materials, the Internet,
email, video-conferencing, on-line chat rooms and access to electronic data-
bases represent some of the new technologies that have impacted on distance
education (Burwash and Cotkin, 1999). These developments have led to
innovative educational technologies to deliver instruction, an emphasis on
student-centred, lifelong learning, and an internationalization of education
(Bates, 1997; Crist, 1999).
Alongside technological advances, occupational therapists’ interest in
graduate education has increased. Graduate education provides opportunities
for: engaging in personal and professional development; increasing skills and
knowledge; career advancement; becoming university faculty; and engaging in
clinical research (Dickerson and Wittman, 1999). Pursuing graduate educa-
tion is essential to developing a scientific approach to practice since it can
provide answers to clinical questions as well as contributing theoretical
knowledge.
In the profession of occupational therapy there is a shortage of doctoral-
level trained therapists to fill university and clinical research positions
(
Crepeau et al., 1999). There is also a need for researchers to develop new
models of practice and evaluate current approaches to intervention (Yerxa,
991; Case-Smith, 1999). Lifelong professional education opportunities for
1
allied health professionals in rural or remote areas require innovative use of
information technologies (Sheppard, 1995; Sheppard and Mackintosh, 1998).
Another factor in the rapid development of alternative delivery technolo-
gies has been pressure from university administrators to capitalize on these
technologies. With bases of traditional funding shrinking, universities have
had to become entrepreneurial in terms of generating revenue. The use of dis-
tance-education technologies is one means through which universities can
generate much-needed income through the enrolment of international stu-
dents, who pay differential fees. Through the marketing of virtual education
courses, universities can become competitive in the global economy.
When Dickerson and Wittman (1999) surveyed occupational therapists
participating in graduate education in the USA, several factors were rated as
important: cost, a clinical emphasis, the availability of faculty mentors,
access to occupational therapy electives, an emphasis on advanced assess-
ment, and alternative delivery programmes. Factors important to potential
students included having faculty with doctorates and active research careers,
using seminars and having a thesis requirement (Dickerson and Wittman,
1
999). Although there is a growing body of literature about educational
innovations in occupational therapy, such as distance education (Burwash
and Cotkin, 1999), interactive videoconferencing (Crist, 1999), Internet use
(
King, 1999) and email (Zimmerman, 1999), there is a dearth of literature
about the supervision of graduates in research-intensive programmes and the

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use of emerging technologies. It is the partnership between the research
graduate student and the university faculty supervisor that forms the basis of
this paper. This supervision relationship no longer needs to take place face-
to-face, as in the traditional apprenticeship model. Virtual supervision has
altered the modus operandi for both supervisors and students, added to the
challenges and raised new issues in the provision of quality supervision and
optimal learning.
A qualitative research study of distance graduate students and supervisors
in the Department of Occupational Therapy, University of Queensland, Bris-
bane, Queensland, Australia, is described. The two authors of this paper have
a relationship as supervisor (SR) and doctoral student (GTB). It inspired us to
explore views and experiences of other graduate students and supervisors who
share similar distance partnerships.
Literature review
Distance education models focus on the central components of the instruc-
tional process, presentation of content, interaction with faculty, peers and
resources, practical application and assessment (Institute for Distance Educa-
tion, 1997). These models differ according to the types of technologies used
and the locus of control over the pace and place of instruction.
The traditional approach at the doctoral level has been the apprenticeship
model, where the student learns research skills through a closely structured
educational process controlled by the university supervisor (Salmon, 1992).
Others conceptualize doctoral education as a process in which the graduate
student is given a high degree of freedom (Hockey, 1996). There has been
ongoing debate about the effectiveness of doctoral education since the 1980s
(
Linden, 1999), and the traditional PhD approach has been criticized for
being overly ambitious and ineffective (Moses, 1994) and having limited rele-
vance to modern society.
Essentially, a student undertaking a research doctorate by distance educa-
tion is required to operate with a high degree of freedom. The traditional
apprenticeship model is not likely to be possible or feasible. The PhD process
involves a number of steps, including determining a topic of interest, locating
a principal and associate supervisor, reviewing the literature, identifying an
appropriate methodology, undertaking relevant coursework, gaining ethical
clearance, collecting and analysing the data, and writing the thesis (Pierce
and Peyton, 1999).
The supervisor needs to provide institutional guidelines, references, pro-
ject management, editorial advice and support for the student to undertake a
research project and produce a written thesis of acceptable rigour and quality.
For the distance student, written materials may be sent by regular mail or as
email attachments. Telephone, email, computer conferencing or Internet
chat-lines may be used to maintain regular contact between the graduate

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student and supervisor. Hence, information technology is critical for interac-
tion with supervisors, peers and resources.
The University of Queensland requires that distance students spend a min-
imum of nine weeks’ residency on campus during their candidature to facili-
tate interaction with their supervisor, other faculty and students. The distance
PhD process discussed in this paper involves a model of independent learning
in students’ own time and at their own pace. This is flexible for international
students who live in different time zones and have varied employment, family
and community responsibilities.
In this model, the supervisor facilitates the student’s learning around cur-
rent needs. Doctoral students are responsible for structuring their own time
and organizing themselves to meet deadlines. High levels of motivation, com-
mitment, time management, communication and organizational skills are
required (Institute for Distance Education, 1997). Case-Smith (1999), in her
qualitative study of nine successful occupational therapy researchers, recom-
mended that new researchers learn to take risks, accept criticism, prioritize,
manage time and learn about systems that support research.
Graduate supervision is based on a partnership. The nature of this relation-
ship and the degree of closeness varies between individuals (Salmon, 1992;
Hammick and Acker, 1998). Hammick and Acker (1998) found that gender
differences existed in supervisory relationships, with females describing a more
equal balance of power than males. Salmon (1992) reinforced the importance
of personal support in this relationship. Trust, empathy and mutual resonance
represent the essential basis of successful supervisory relationships (Salmon,
1
992).
Developments in information technology offer the promise of courses
delivered anywhere, at any time, greater learning effectiveness, more learner-
centred approaches and better-quality interaction, but Bates (1997) cautioned
against ‘getting carried away by the hype’ (1997: 93). Cost-effectiveness is not
the same as cost-reduction, especially if quality is to be retained. Distance
learners have more technological obstacles to overcome than campus-based
students, such as access to a computer, fax, fast modems, a telephone line and
an Internet service provider. They have to bear these costs despite being able
to maintain residence and employment in their home community.
Two contexts of interaction are important for learning: the interaction of
the student with resource materials; and discourse about the material (Bates,
1
997). According to Sherry (1996), the most important factor for successful
distance learning is a caring, concerned teacher who is confident, experienced
with the application of technology, and interacts with students. Sustained
high-quality two-way communication is essential. To date, few research stud-
ies have investigated the requirements of university faculty who engage in dis-
tance learning and graduate research student supervision. Nor have there
been studies comparing distance learning programmes with those that have a
residency requirement.

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Method
Design
Qualitative research methodology was chosen to investigate distance educa-
tion supervision, to maintain flexibility in the process of data-gathering
(Patton, 1990). It also enables researchers to gain in-depth knowledge about
people’s ‘lived experiences’. Another advantage of a qualitative design is that
the information gained can be used to analyse the effectiveness of supervision
and provide feedback to supervisors. This was used as part of the evaluation of
distance graduate studies, which in turn forms the basis of ongoing enhance-
ment of teaching and learning activities.
Participants
The participants were three supervisors and four distance graduate students, of
whom three were PhD students and one was a research master’s student. The
students were in England, Hong Kong, Canada and Australia. The supervisors
were all permanent faculty in the Department of Occupational Therapy at the
University of Queensland. Two men (students) and five women (students and
supervisors) participated in the study. Three students had completed master’s
degrees involving various proportions of coursework and research, and one
had completed an undergraduate honours thesis.
Procedures
Departmental ethical committee approval was gained, and prior written con-
sent, in which confidentiality was assured, was obtained. An interview proto-
col using open-ended questions was developed for delivery through a
face-to-face interview or via email. Three students and one supervisor
returned email replies, and two supervisors and one student completed indi-
vidual face-to-face interviews. The interviews were audiotaped and tran-
scribed and the email responses printed for analysis. The interviews lasted
between 30 and 60 minutes. During the interviews, probe questions were used
to help the interviewee to expand on responses and clarify comments. This
was not possible with the email responses.
Content and thematic analyses of written scripts were conducted by both
investigators independently. Content analysis is the systematic examination
of text by identifying and grouping themes through coding, classifying and
developing categories. Independent assessment of transcripts enhanced the
reliability of the data analysis (Mays and Pope, 1995). Discussion and the use
of peer examination and code, re-code procedures were used to develop con-
sensus between authors (Krefting, 1991).
Several methods were used to strengthen the design of the study and to
enhance the validity and reliability of the design and findings (Denzin and

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Lincoln, 1994). Triangulation strengthens the credibility, dependability and
confirmability of the research (Krefting, 1991). Investigator triangulation
involved using several researchers from different backgrounds (supervisor and
student) to develop questions, and code and analyse the transcripts. Theory
triangulation was explored by using multiple perspectives to interpret the
transcribed data (distance graduates and supervisors).
Results and discussion
The results are presented according to the five emerging themes:
1
. The advantages of distance graduate education
Students described the flexibility and convenience of distance study as less
disruptive to their personal and professional lives. For example, students were
able to continue working at their present clinical or academic jobs while com-
pleting graduate education, which allowed them to meet their financial oblig-
ations. They were thus able to integrate research with their clinical work, as
well as use their workplace infrastructure to support their research. They also
commented that distance models increased their accessibility to graduate edu-
cation opportunities. These factors are consistent with those reported by King
(
1999) and Sherry (1999), who cited economic, work and family commit-
ments as reasons why Internet-based educational programmes were becoming
popular.
Similarly, participants considered that distance education promoted inter-
national collaboration in research and that gaining a PhD would provide
them with advanced research skills, further knowledge, the capability for writ-
ing for grants, opportunities for publication and the possibility of pursuing
academic/research careers. These findings concur with those of Dickerson and
Wittman (1999). Participants were positive about the required residency peri-
od in terms of access to resources, libraries and blocks of dedicated time with
their supervisor. All supervisors were positive about working with distance
graduate students in terms of broadening their horizons, expanding networks
and fostering international links.
2
. The challenges of distance graduate education
Students described difficulties such as isolation from the academic community,
supervisors, the support of peers and other graduate students. Some students
had difficulties accessing resources, library facilities, courses, software pro-
grams and computers. All students were challenged by the need to maintain a
balance between their work, study and family roles. Although this is an issue
for many graduate students, it may be more pronounced for this group because
of their isolation from peers and informal support networks.

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169
Both students and supervisors commented on the challenges related to
lack of face-to-face contact, which one participant described as ‘out of sight,
out of mind’. This was related to the frustration due to the lack of interactive
synchronous discussion between supervisors and student.
One student summarized the key concepts discussed by all four students
when he reflected:
Generally, my experience of being a distance student has been more difficult than I had
expected. There are issues around working full-time and studying part-time, but aside
from those, the nature of distance study is difficult … isolation from both my supervi-
sors and other PhD students.
The issue of student isolation from supervisors, other faculty and graduate
students is frequently cited in the literature (for example, Angelo and Zukas,
1
997; Bates, 1997; Burwash and Cotkin, 1999).
One of the major implications for alternative delivery is that learning is a
social activity and this component is not well served when students are work-
ing in isolation. Burwash and Cotkin (1999) stated that distance education
programmes must attend to the social environment to ensure that there are
opportunities for interaction and participation in the students’ communities
of practice. This interactivity (Sherry, 1996) includes the connections that
distance graduate students make with distant faculty members, colleagues,
supervisors and other researchers. Helping distance graduate students to
become part of the research culture of a university and the profession is a
challenge since they are unable to participate in regular research seminars,
graduate student meetings and lectures given by visiting scholars, unless spe-
cial arrangements are made for teleconferencing. Distance graduate students
need assistance to become part of a research community, as well as to get to
know other researchers, in order to provide opportunities for interaction.
All participants relied almost entirely on email for communication. This
was frustrating because of the asynchronous nature of the interaction and the
time required to provide extensive written responses. All participants
described the lengthy process of composing emails, delay in receiving replies,
especially due to time differences, and the limitations to interactive discus-
sions. At the time of data collection, none of the respondents had used Inter-
net chat channels or video-conferencing. Telephone contact was often
infrequent because of cost and time zone differences, but was used as needed.
King (1999) and Zimmerman (1999) reported an increased use of the
Internet for distance instruction by email. The utility of email to provide
social support and a feeling of being connected with other students is often
overlooked. The informal conversational style of email enables written com-
munication to become more social and interactive. A new set of skills is
required in relation to effective communication in written form to allow
effective collaboration between people who may never have met (Sherry,
1
996).

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3
. Issues related to distance graduate education
Students and supervisors raised issues such as the need to negotiate expecta-
tions between associate and principal supervisors in terms of approach, style
and roles. Negotiating the administration of the university in terms of formal
policy, procedures and finances was often difficult for both students and super-
visors. Dealing with institutional bureaucracy can be daunting for distance
students. The supervisor may have to take on the roles of advocate, negotiator
and problem-solver for the distance student.
Both parties described the need to acknowledge the time commitments, rel-
ative isolation and challenges in making this partnership work effectively.
Supervisors felt the need for support from other colleagues, whereas students
would have liked the support of other distance students. Students commented
on the need for adequate financial resources to cover costs such as phone, mail,
fax, photocopying, travel, on-campus residency and technology expenses.
4
. Supports and strategies that promote successful distance graduate education
Students commented on the following elements: having a supportive principal
and associate supervisor, the on-campus residency periods, and developing infor-
mal support networks of friends, colleagues and other students. Students and
supervisors commented on the importance of email discussion, the need for
prompt responses to email, as well as the essential aspect of open and honest com-
munication between student and supervisor. These aspects are also highly valued
by research graduates in face-to-face contact with supervisors (Salmon, 1992).
5
. Distance graduate student and supervisor requirements
Qualities required by distance education students – such as initiative, inde-
pendence, flexibility and adaptability, personal perseverance, resilience and
persistence, time management and self-discipline – were mentioned by all par-
ticipants. Several students mentioned that technical skills were necessary,
including computer skills, written communication skills and a working knowl-
edge of data analysis and research methods.
Other studies have found that graduate students who manage distance
learning well are those with an internal locus of control, who are autonomous
learners, active listeners, are self-directed and have information technology
skills before admission (Charp, 1994; Burwash and Cotkin, 1999). Graduates
who balance the multiple demands of family, work and study make many sac-
rifices and require support from and negotiation of acceptable solutions with
employers, colleagues, family members and friends (Kember, 1999).
According to the participants, distance supervisors also needed to have
good time-management skills, be honest communicators, provide timely writ-
ten feedback, be encouraging, and advocate for their students. In addition, they
needed to be knowledgeable about the research topic, realistic and seek support

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as required. These supervisor qualities were also identified by graduates in a
previous study (Burwash and Cotkin, 1999). Supervision of research students
requires an intimate collegial relationship that can withstand potential conflict
and time pressure, as well as provide personal and professional support.
Summary and conclusions
A qualitative research design was used to investigate the perceptions of four
graduate students and three doctoral supervisors. The small sample size in this
study limits generalizability. However, many of the findings concur with the lit-
erature about distance learning and doctoral supervision. There is a growing
interest in graduate supervision as a professional competence requiring both
practical skills and conscious reflection (Linden, 1999). Distance supervisors
need support, training in technology, knowledge of effective distance education
models, as well as student feedback. Graduate students undertaking research
degrees at a distance encounter additional challenges to most on-campus stu-
dents. Not the least of these is the potential for social isolation from other grad-
uates, supervisors and faculty and lack of involvement in the university research
culture. Supervisors need to be cognizant of this and to support these students
to embrace the occupational therapy research culture at an international level,
through conference attendance and presentation, contact with international
experts through the Internet, and establishing networks with other researchers.
Residency periods in an academic department help to overcome social isolation
and provide experience with the department’s research culture. Further research
could address the effectiveness of the support strategies suggested by these par-
ticipants, students’ and supervisors’ satisfaction with distance models used, the-
sis completion rates and the development of global research networks.
Distance graduate study and supervision is one example of the globaliza-
tion of occupational therapy education and is likely to generate collaborative
projects and research networks. By being aware of these challenges, graduate
study and supervision can be a mutually beneficial experience for all involved.
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Address correspondence to Sylvia Rodger, Senior Lecturer, Department of Occupational
Therapy, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia. Email:
S.Rodger@mailbox.uq.edu.au