Synthesis of glycerol carbonate by transesterification of glycerol and dimethyl carbonate over KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst

Article abstract of DOI:10.5935/0103-5053.20130281

Series of KF/γ-Al₂O₃ solid base catalysts were prepared by a wet impregnation method and applied to the synthesis of glycerol carbonate (GC) from glycerol and dimethyl carbonate. The influences of KF loading and calcination temperature of catalyst on the synthesis were investigated. The results showed that KF/γ-A1₂O₃ catalysts could promote glycerol conversion to GC efficiently. The structure and properties of the catalysts were studied by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), N₂-adsorption, CO₂-temperature programmed desorption (TPD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Hammett indicator method. It was found that several types of basic centers such as KF, KAlO₂, KOH and possibly coordinately unsaturated F-ion existed on the catalysts. The strong basic centers could not only accelerate the conversion of glycerol, but also enhance the formation of glycidol from the decomposition of GC. The recycling of KF/γ-A1 ₂O₃ revealed that deactivation of catalyst was strengthened with the reuse times, which was mainly caused by the partial leaching of active potassium species. High calcination temperature favored the transformation of KF to KAlO₂ and alleviated the deactivation of the catalyst. Based on the product distribution and obtained results, a possible reaction mechanism on reaction of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate was proposed.

Full text of DOI:10.5935/0103-5053.20130281

http://dx.doi.org/10.5935/0103-5053.20130281
J. Braz. Chem. Soc., Vol. 25, No. 1, 152-160, 2014.
Printed in Brazil - ©2014 Sociedade Brasileira de Química
0103 - 5053 $6.00+0.00
Article
A
Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate by Transesterification of Glycerol and Dimethyl
Carbonate over KF/γ-Al2O3 Catalyst
Zhenmin Liu,a,b,c Junwei Wang,*,a Maoqing Kang,a Ning Yin,a Xinkui Wang,a
Yisheng Tanb and Yulei Zhub
aLaboratory of Applied Catalysis and Green Chemical Engineering and
bState Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Coal Chemistry,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 030001 Taiyuan, P. R. China
cUniversity of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, P. R. China
Uma série de catalisadores sólidos básicos de KF/γ-Al2O3foi preparada pelo método
deimpregnação úmida e aplicada à síntese de carbonato de glicerina (GC) a partir de glicerol e
carbonato de dimetila.As influências do teor de KF e da temperatura de calcinação do catalisador na
síntese foram investigadas. Os resultados mostraram que os catalisadores de KF/γ-Al2O3conseguem
promover uma conversão eficiente de glicerol emGC.A estrutura e as propriedades dos catalisadores
foram estudadas por difratometria de raios X (XRD), espectroscopia no infravermelho por
transformada de Fourier (FTIR), adsorção de N2, dessorção térmica programada (TPD) de CO2,
espectroscopia fotoeletrônica por raios X (XPS) e pelo método dos indicadores de Hammett.
Observou-se que os catalisadores possuem vários tipos de centros básicos, como KF, KAlO2, KOH
e possivelmente o íon F–coordenativamenteinsaturado. Os centros fortemente básicos não somente
poderiam acelerar a conversão do glicerol, como também aumentar a formação do glicidol a partir
da decomposição de GC.A reutilização de KF/γ-Al2O3 mostrou que a decomposição do catalisador,
que é causada principalmente pela lixiviação parcial das espécies ativas de potássio, aumenta com
o número de usos. Temperaturas altas de calcinação favorecem a transformação de KF emKAlO2e
amenizam a desativação do catalisador. Com base na distribuição dos produtos e nos resultados
obtidos, foi proposto um mecanismo possível para a reação do glicerol com carbonato de dimetila.
A series of KF/γ-Al2O3 solid base catalysts were prepared by a wet impregnation method and
applied to the synthesis of glycerol carbonate (GC) from glycerol and dimethyl carbonate. The
influences of KF loading and calcination temperature of catalyst on the synthesis were investigated.
The results showed that KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts could promote glycerol conversion to GC efficiently.
The structure and properties of the catalysts were studied by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD),
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), N2-adsorption, CO2-temperature programmed
desorption (TPD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Hammett indicator method. It
was found that several types of basic centers such as KF, KAlO2, KOH and possibly coordinately
unsaturated F– ion existed on the catalysts. The strong basic centers could not only accelerate the
conversion of glycerol, but also enhance the formation of glycidol from the decomposition of
GC. The recycling of KF/γ-Al2O3 revealed that deactivation of catalyst was strengthened with the
reuse times, which was mainly caused by the partial leaching of active potassium species. High
calcination temperature favored the transformation of KF to KAlO2 and alleviated the deactivation of
the catalyst. Based on the product distribution and obtained results, a possible reaction mechanism
on reaction of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate was proposed.
Keywords: glycerol, dimethyl carbonate, glycerol carbonate, KF/γ-A12O3
*e-mail: wangjw@sxicc.ac.cn

Vol. 25, No. 1, 2014
Liu et al.
153
Introduction
have been reported, they are tetra-N-butylammonium
bromide, K2CO3, NaOH, etc.8,16,21,22 In spite of the high
catalytic activity, these catalysts are less preferable in
view of difficulty in separation of the spent catalyst
from the reaction mixture and their poor reusability. To
meet the requirement of future commercial production,
development of efficient heterogeneous and recyclable
catalyst is thus highly desirable. Ochoa-Gómez et al.16
found that the basic catalysts were more active than the
acidic ones, and their catalytic activity depended on
the basic strength and basicity of catalysts. Among the
evaluated catalysts, CaO was found to be the best basic
catalyst and gave 95% of GC yield. However, CaO was
easily deactivated after adsorbing trace amount of water
or CO2. Alvarez et al.18 prepared a series of Mg/Al mixed
oxides from hydrotalcite and applied to the synthesis of
GC as a solid base catalyst. 97% of glycerol conversion
and 93% of GC yield were obtained under the optimized
conditions. Takagaki et al.23 stated that the uncalcined
hydrotalcite with hydromagnesite phase could also
promote GC formation.
A number of reports have shown that the basic catalysts
can accelerate the transesterification reaction efficiently.
Besides CaO and hydrotalcite-like catalysts, alumina
loaded KF also possesses strong basic sites, which can
be prepared by simple impregnation and has been applied
to various base–catalyzed reactions such as elimination,
addition, condensation, epoxidation, transesterification,
etc.24-26 So far, there are few reports concerning the
application of KF/γ-Al2O3 as a solid base catalyst for the
synthesis of GC from glycerol and DMC. Moreover, few
reports discussed the effect of basic strength on the activity
and selectivity of the catalyst in this process.
Biodiesel has attracted considerable attention as an
alternative to the fossil fuel resources. European Union
and U.S. government have promulgated mandatory
regulations for the use of biodiesel in transportation fuel
and on-road diesel.1 However, production of biodiesel by
plant oil methanolysis generates large amount of glycerol
(about 10 wt.%) as an unavoidable by-product, which has
to be valorized to improve the economic competitiveness
of biodiesel.2 Therefore, transformation of glycerol into
value-added products is of great significance. So far, several
routes for glycerol conversion have been reported, such as
selective oxidation, reduction, etherification, esterification,
polymerization, transesterification, etc.3,4
Among the various downstream products of glycerol,
glycerol carbonate (4-hydroxymethyl-2-oxo-1,3-dioxolane,
GC) represents an important and potential glycerol derivative
that shows low toxicity and volatility, biodegradability, high
boiling point, etc.5 GC has been widely used as a solvent
in the cosmetics industry, as a membrane component for
gas separation, as a component of coatings and detergents,
as a precursor of glycidol, and as a monomer in preparing
polycarbonate and polyurethane.6-8
GC can be synthesized from glycerol and different
reagents including CO, CO2, phosgene, urea and organic
carbonates. Among these raw materials, CO or phosgene
is practically limited due to their toxicity and safety issues
at both laboratory and industrial scales.9-11 The direct
carbonation of glycerol with CO2 is thermodynamically
limited and only gives very low yield even under harsh
reaction conditions.12,13 The disadvantages of preparing
GC from glycerol and urea lead to the creation of large
amounts of ammonia and the difficulty in separating the
undesired by-products like isocyanic acid and biuret.14,15
Although GC may be obtained from glycerol and
ethylene carbonate by transesterification, ethylene glycol
is produced as by-product which makes the separation
of products difficult because of their high boiling
points.16 Compared with these ways, transesterification
of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) for GC
preparation is considered as the promising approach
for industrial application due to the mild reaction
conditions, easy separation, simple process and high GC
yield.17-19
In this work, a series of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts were
prepared by an impregnation method and used to the
synthesis of GC from glycerol and DMC. The catalytic
activities, surface properties and the reusability of catalysts
were studied.
Experimental
Materials
Glycerol, KF and biphenyl were purchased from Tianjin
Tianli Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. DMC was obtained
from Tangshan Chaoyang Chemical Engineering Co., Ltd.
Glycidol (95%) and GC (90%) for gas chromatography
analysis were purchased from Tianjin Kermel Chemical
Reagent Co., Ltd. and TCI (Shanghai) Development Co.
Ltd., respectively. DMC was distilled before use. All other
reagents were used directly as received.
Several catalysts have been employed to promote
this reaction efficiently. Kim et al.20 prepared GC in the
presence of a lipase catalyst Novozym 435. However, the
process is plagued by long reaction time, inconvenient
removal of THF solvent and the sensitivity of lipase to
environment. Recently, some homogeneous catalysts

154
Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate by Transesterification of Glycerol and Dimethyl Carbonate
J. Braz. Chem. Soc.
Catalyst preparation
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to
measure the elemental composition on the catalyst surface
and the data were collected on an XSAM800 spectrometer
(KRATOS). Al Kα radiation (hν = 1486.6 eV) was used
as the X-ray source.
The KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts were prepared by a wet
impregnation method. In a typical process, 0.4266 g,
0.9005 g, 1.4301 g, 3.4730 g and 6.6301 g of KF 2H2O were
•
separately dissolved in 7.5 mL of distilled water to obtain
several KF solutions. 5 g of γ-Al2O3 was added into the
above KF solutions, respectively. The mixture was stirred
at room temperature for 10 min and dried at 110 °C for
12 h. The obtained samples were calcined at 100-800 C
for 5 h. Finally, the solids were crushed into particles for
use as catalyst.
Catalytic reaction
For this transesterification reaction, glycerol (18.40 g,
0.2 mol), DMC (54.0 g, 0.6 mol) and the catalyst (4 wt.% of
glycerol) were added into a three-neck round-bottom flask
equipped with a mechanical stirring bar, a thermometer
and a condenser connected to a liquid dividing head for
separating the formed methanol. The mixture was heated
to 80 °C and kept for 1.5 h under stirring. After reaction,
the mixture was filtered to remove the catalyst. The liquid
solution was distillated at 50 °C under reduced pressure to
remove methanol and DMC.
o
Catalyst characterization
X-ray diffraction (XRD) was measured on a Siemens
D8 advance powder X-ray diffractometer using Ni-filtered
Cu Kα radiation over a 2θ range of 5-80o with a step size
of 0.02o at a scanning speed of 2o min–1.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) data
were collected on a Nicolet 380 FTIR instrument over the
scanning range of 400-4000 cm−1 at a resolution of 4.0 cm−1.
The catalyst sample was diluted with KBr at the ratio of
1:200 and pressed into a disk.
Procedure for recycling the catalyst
After reaction, the filtered catalysts were washed twice
with 100 mL methanol, dried at 110 °C for 2 h and then
collected for the next run.
The surface basic properties of the catalysts were
measured by CO2 temperature programmed desorption
(TPD) using a TPD flow system equipped with a TCD
detector (CHEMBET-3000 TPR/TPD, Quantachrome
Instruments, USA). Experiments were carried out in the
temperature range of 40-500 oC. Before TPD experiments,
the samples (about 100 mg) were pretreated at 350 oC in
a flow of nitrogen (20 mL min–1). The particle size of the
catalyst was in the range of 40-60 mesh.
The basic strength and basicity of the solid catalysts
were determined by the Hammett indicator.About 100 mg
of the catalyst was ultrasonicated in 5 mL cyclohexane
containing Hammett indicator and then the catalyst was
left still for one hour to achieve equilibration. The basicity
(expressed in mmol g–1) of the catalysts was measured
using Hammett indicator–benzene carboxylic acid
(0.05 mol L–1 anhydrous cyclohexane solution) titration.
In typical experiment, the following Hammett indicators
were used: bromothymol blue (H_=7.2), phenolphthalein
(H_=9.8), 2,4-dinitroaniline (H_=15.0) and 4-nitroaniline
(H_=18.4).
Product analysis
The product was analyzed on a gas chromatograph
(GC-2014 Shimadzu, Japan) with a CBP-20 capillary
column (25 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) and a flame ionization
detector. The capillary column temperature was started at
75 °C and maintained for 5 min, then raised at a rate of
30 °C min–1 up to 240 °C and maintained for 30 min. The
detector and injection temperature were kept at 280 °C
and 250 °C, respectively. Nitrogen was used as the carrier
gas. Biphenyl was chosen as the internal standard for the
quantitative analysis of products.
Results and Discussion
Catalyst characterization
For the KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, solid state reactions between
KF and γ-Al2O3 occurred during the calcination process
and several new phases such as K3AlF6, KOH, KAlO2 and
[Al‑OH···F–] might be formed.25 The new phases might
constitute the strong basic centers and provided the catalytic
activity for the transesterification. To find out the actual active
phases, XRD was used to learn the structure of KF/γ-Al2O3
catalysts with various KF loading. The patterns are shown in
Figure 1. The diffraction peaks of γ-Al2O3 (Figure 1a) were in
The surface area and pore volume of the catalyst were
measured by nitrogen adsorption at 77.3 K on a Tristar
3000 surface area and porosity analyzer (USA). High purity
nitrogen (99.99%) was used in this analysis. Prior to the
o
measurement, the catalysts were outgassed at 200 C for
2 h under vacuum.

Vol. 25, No. 1, 2014
Liu et al.
155
good agreement with the International Centre for Diffraction
Data powder diffraction file (PDF) 29-0063. When 5 wt.%
of KF was loaded on γ-Al2O3, the catalyst displayed similar
XRD patterns (Figure 1b) to that of γ-Al2O3, indicating that
KF or its derivatives were highly dispersed on the surface
of the support, or their amounts was smaller than those
detectable via the XRD technique. When the KF loading
rose up to 15 wt.%, the diffraction peaks at 2θ = 29.8o, 36.7o,
42.8o, 53.2o and 62.3o attributed to K3AlF6 (PDF 03-0615)
were observed in Figure 1c. Meanwhile, the weak peaks of
KAlO2 (PDF 53-0809) appeared at 2θ = 32.7o, 35.9o, 38.6o,
46.9o and 58.5o. The characteristic peaks of K3AlF6 and
KAlO2 were strengthened gradually with further increasing
KF loading, as illustrated in Figure 1d. In the XRD pattern
(Figure 1e) of 45 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, a new diffraction peak
appearing at 2θ = 30.9o was ascribed to KOH, as supported
by reference.27
through the solid-state reaction between KF and γ-Al2O3.
Accordingly, the surface area and pore volume decreased
and the pore size of catalyst increased with the KF loading.
These data are tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1. The surface area and pore volume of KF/γ‑Al2O3 catalysts
BET area / Pore volume / Pore size /
Catalysts
(m2 g–1)
255
244
189
76
(cm3 g–1)
0.42
nm
6.52
6.55
7.10
7.39
10.23
γ-Al2O3
5 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
30 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
45 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
0.39
0.33
0.13
18
0.05
As reported, the formation of KOH was inevitable in
company with K3AlF6.28 However, no peaks related to KOH
were observed in XRD pattern of the 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3,
whereas peaks of KAlO2 began to appear. When the KF
loading increased up to 45 wt.%, the characteristic peak of
KOH appeared, meanwhile, the peak intensity of γ-Al2O3
decreased gradually, representing that the formed KOH
reacted with γ-Al2O3 and was converted to KAlO2. This
also indicated that the redundant KOH was accumulated on
the catalyst surface and was detected by XRD. Thus, it was
inferred that KAlO2 resulted from the interaction of KOH
with γ-Al2O3. These results clearly showed that the loaded
KF reacted with γ-Al2O3 and formed various new phases.
Figure 2. FT-IR spectra of γ-Al2O3 and KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts with various
KF loading: (a) γ-Al2O3, (b) 5 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (c) 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3,
(d) 30 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (e) 45 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3.
Figure 2 gives the FT-IR spectra of γ-Al2O3 and
KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts.As shown in Figure 2a, the characteristic
bands at 3500 cm–1 and 1633 cm–1 were attributed to the
stretching vibration and bending vibration of the OH group
on γ-Al2O3, respectively. The band at 1073 cm–1 was assigned
to Al–O–Al symmetric stretching vibrations. The bands
appearing between 520 and 750 cm–1 was related to the
vibrations of Al–O bonds corresponding to aluminum ions
in octahedral and tetrahedral environments.29 Their band
intensity decreased and even disappeared with the increasing
KF loading, indicating that γ-Al2O3 reacted with KF. At
the same process, a new peak at 586 cm–1 appeared which
belonged to the Al–F stretching vibration in K3AlF6.26 The
peak at 3500 cm–1 in Figure 2b-d was related to the stretching
vibration of theAl–O–K group in KAlO2 and became broader
with increasing KF loading.30 Qiu et al.27 proved that even
the pure KOH showed a weak band at 3502 cm–1. Thus, the
adsorption peak at about 3500 cm–1 was mainly ascribed
Figure 1. XRD patterns of γ-Al2O3 and KF/γ-Al2O3 with different
o
KF loading calcined at 400 C: (a) γ-Al2O3, (b) 5 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3,
(c) 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (d) 30 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (e) 45 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3.
Additionally, the decrease of peak intensity of γ-Al2O3
also indicated that its crystal structure was destroyed

156
Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate by Transesterification of Glycerol and Dimethyl Carbonate
J. Braz. Chem. Soc.
to KAlO2. The FT-IR data further confirmed the formation
of K3AlF6, KOH and KAlO2 in the solid interaction of KF
and Al2O3.
the color of 2,4-dinitroaniline (H_ = 15.0). This indicated
that the basic strength of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts was in the
range of 9.8-15.0 and the catalyst could be regarded as
strong base according to Tanabe’s definition.33 Moreover,
the basicity of γ-Al2O3 was enhanced by impregnating KF
and the maximum 0.298 mmol g–1 was taken when 15 wt.%
KF was loaded. Exorbitant KF loading would reduce the
basicity of catalyst, probably caused by the coverage of
the conglomerated K3AlF6 and the reduction of surface
area of the catalysts. The results well corresponded with
the CO2-TPD characterization and the similar phenomenon
was reported in references.34,35
Table 2. Basic strength and basicity of KF/γ-Al2O3 with various KF
loading, characterized by Hammett indicators
KF loading / wt.%
Basic strength (H_) Basicity / (mmol g–1)
0
< 7.2
–
5
9.8-15.0
9.8-15.0
9.8-15.0
9.8-15.0
9.8-15.0
0.061
0.176
0.298
0.216
0.183
10
15
30
45
Figure 3. CO2-TPD profiles of KF/γ-Al2O3 with different KF loading
o
calcined at 400 C: (a) 5 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (b) 10 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3,
(c) 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (d) 30 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3, (e) 45 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3.
CO2 temperature programmed desorption was utilized
to study the basic properties of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts. The
CO2-TPD curves of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts with different
KF loading are shown in Figure 3. Three desorption
peaks appeared in CO2-TPD curves at about 225, 340 and
490-580 °C. They represented the weak, medium and strong
basic centers of the KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst, respectively. It was
found from the desorption peak area in Figure 3a-c that
the number of the strong basic centers of the KF/γ-Al2O3
catalyst increased markedly with the KF loading up to
15 wt.%. This could be ascribed to the formation of much
more strong basic centers which were regarded as the active
centers for the transesterification reaction.31,32 However, the
basic sites (shown in Figure 3d-e) of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts
were reduced gradually with the further increase of KF
loading. The XRD patterns had indicated that K3AlF6 was
easily formed and aggregated at high KF loading. Hence,
the decrease of strong basic sites for KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts
at high KF loading might be attributed to the coverage by
K3AlF6 and the structure damage resulting from the reaction
between KF and γ-Al2O3.
Synthesis of GC from glycerol and DMC catalyzed by
KF/γ-Al2O3
From Table 3, it was seen that γ-Al2O3 could not promote
the transformation of glycerol into GC. KF·2H2O had
unsatisfied activity for GC formation, and 48.7% of glycerol
conversion was obtained after reacting at 80 oC for 1.5 h.
However, above 99% of glycerol conversion was gained
under the same reaction conditions as GC synthesis when
KF·2H2O was calcined at 400 oC for 3 h. Since glycerol is
strongly hydrophilic, adsorbing trace amount of water from
environment is unavoidable. Ando et al.25 found that water
played an important role in determining the activity of the
catalyst. They believed that an active basic site involving a
coordinately unsaturated F– ion [Al‑OH···F–] was formed
through the strong H-bond interaction. Zhu et al.36 also
reported that neutral KF adsorbed trace amount of water
vapor and formed a similar basic site. Obviously, the high
activity of KF for glycerol conversion was related to the
formation of a coordinately unsaturated F– ion through
adsorbing trace amount of water. As to the lower activity
of KF·2H2O, long time was taken to lose crystal water and
then produced coordinately unsaturated F– ion. Thus, it was
reasonable to obtain lower catalytic activity of KF·2H2O
than that of KF.
The basic strength and basicity of the KF/γ-Al2O3
catalysts were measured quantitatively using Hammett
indicators. The results are shown in Table 2. The carrier
γ-Al2O3 was amphoteric and could not change the color
of bromothymol blue (H_ = 7.2). Its basic strength were
improved by impregnating KF and accordingly the color of
phenolphthalein (H_ = 9.8) could be changed from white to
red. However, all the KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts could not change
Table 3 shows the catalytic performance of KF/γ-Al2O3
catalysts. It was found that glycerol conversion and GC

Vol. 25, No. 1, 2014
Liu et al.
157
Table 3. The effect of different catalysts on the synthesis of glycerol carbonate
Selectivity / %
Catalyst
Conversion / %
Yield of GC / %
GC
0
Glycidol
0
Glycerol dicarbonate
γ-Al2O3
0
0
0
0
K3AlF6
0
0
0
0
KFa
99.4
48.7
100
99.1
52.6
93.5
96.1
96.2
72.7
99.3
99.8
58.8
64.3
38.3
95.3
67.4
85.9
98.1
97.9
74.4
91.9
86.4
31.4
25.8
42.5
4.7
9.8
9.9
19.2
0
58.4
31.3
38.3
94.4
35.5
80.3
94.3
94.2
54.1
91.3
86.2
KF·2H2O
KOH
KAlO2
5 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
10 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3b
15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3c
30 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
45 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3
32.6
14.0
1.5
0
0.1
0.4
0.5
0.3
2.1
3.3
1.6
25.3
6.0
10.3
Reaction conditions: catalyst content: 4 wt.% based on the glycerol weight; n(glycerol):n(DMC) = 1:3; reaction temperature: 80 °C; reaction time: 1.5 h.
Calcination conditions: 400 °C for 5 h. aKF was calcined at 400 °C for 3 h; bcalcination conditions: 100 °C for 5 h; ccalcination conditions: 600 °C for 5 h.
yield markedly increased by introducing KF onto γ-Al2O3.
As described in Table 2, the basic strength of γ-Al2O3
increased after KF loading. Accordingly, the catalytic
activity was improved greatly, indicating that the high
basic strength facilitated the conversion of glycerol.As KF
loading was increased up to 15 wt.%, the catalytic activities
and selectivity of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts increased. They
possessed the same basic strength and the increased basicity
with KF loading increased, presenting that the basicity
favored the glycerol conversion at the given basic strength.
However, further elevating KF loading only resulted
in the loss of GC selectivity. In the previous XRD
characterization, it had been indicated that the amount
of strong basic sites such as KAlO2, KOH increased with
the KF loading. In the catalytic performance, pure KOH
with the basic strength above 18.4 gave a total glycerol
conversion and 42.5% of selectivity to glycidol which
was produced from the decomposition of GC. Therefore,
it was clearly inferred that too much strong basic sites on
the catalyst promoted the decomposition of GC to glycidol.
Bai et al.19 also stated that the too strong base led to the
generation of glycidol.
temperature, although their XRD patterns (shown in
Figure 4a-b and Figure 1c) were similar. Thus, it was
deduced that [Al‑OH···F–] phase might act an important
role in glycerol conversion, especially at the low calcination
temperature. With the calcination temperature increased,
[Al–OH···F–] phase was destroyed and new basic phases
such as KOH, KAlO2 were formed and provided new
active basic sites to promote the conversion of glycerol.
However, at the higher temperatures, excessive dehydroxyl,
structure collapse and the formation of inactiveAlF3 would
weaken the activity of the catalyst seriously. Accordingly,
inactive AlF3 (PDF 44-0231) was detected in XRD pattern
(Figure 4c) of 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst calcined at
The influence of calcination temperature on catalytic
activity of KF/γ-Al2O3 was also investigated. The
results are displayed in Table 3. No obvious changes for
glycerol conversion and GC selectivity were observed
o
for 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts calcined at 100 C and
o
400 C, respectively. Compared with those, KF/γ-Al2O3
o
calcined at 600 C showed lower activity, probably
due to the transformation of active species at elevated
Figure 4. XRD patterns of 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst calcined at
different temperatures: (a) 100 oC, (b) 600 oC, (c) 800 oC.

158
Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate by Transesterification of Glycerol and Dimethyl Carbonate
J. Braz. Chem. Soc.
800 oC.Ando et al.25 and Zhu et al.36 reported the solid state
reactions occurred at various temperatures for KF/γ-Al2O3
catalyst and the [Al–OH···F–] structure, KOH, KAlO2,
K3AlF6 and AlF3 were found.
results are displayed in Table 4. It was shown that the
glycerol conversion and GC selectivity were basically
unchanged when the catalyst was reused once. The glycerol
conversion decreased in the continued recycling. Generally,
the deactivation of catalyst results from the coverage of
active site, sintering of the active phase, poisoning of active
center and the loss of active ingredient.40 To find the truth of
catalyst deactivation, N2 adsorption, XPS characterizations
were performed.
The characterization and catalytic performance of
KF/γ-Al2O3 have indicated that various basic sites existed
on the surface of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst. To learn the effect
of these basic sites on reaction, pure KF, γ-Al2O3, K3AlF6,
KAlO2 and KOH were tested as catalyst, respectively. As
displayed in Table 3, the pure γ-Al2O3 and K3AlF6 had no
catalytic activity. In contrast, KF, KAlO2 and KOH could
promote the conversion of glycerol efficiently. According
to our previous work and the opened literature,28,37 it can
be confirmed that [Al–OH···F–], KAlO2 and KOH should
be the main active species on KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst for GC
synthesis.
Table 4. The reusability of 15 wt.% KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst
Conversion /
%
Selectivity for
GC / %
Yield of GC /
%
Recycling times
Fresh catalyst
96.1
96.1
96.2
92.5
90.6
98.1
97.0
95.4
95.2
94.8
94.3
93.2
91.8
88.1
85.9
1
2
3
4
Catalyst stability
Reaction conditions: catalyst content: 4 wt.% based on the glycerol weight;
n(glycerol):n(DMC) = 1:3; reaction temperature: 80 °C; reaction time:
1.5 h. Calcination conditions: 400 °C for 5 h.
The stability of a solid base catalyst is a very important
factor for its industrial application. The potassium cation
leaching from KF/γ-Al2O3 catalysts has been reported
in the literature.38 The cation leaching in the form of
homogeneous phase can lead to catalyst deactivation,
product contamination and limit the catalyst reutilization
in a subsequent batch process.39 Thus, it is important to
investigate if the K leached from KF/γ-Al2O3 could form
active homogeneous species in the solution. For that, the
KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst was filtrated off after 1.0 h of reaction
time (73% of glycerol conversion) and then the reaction was
continued for 0.5 h. A conversion of 80.2% was obtained.
It seemed that part of active species might leach from the
catalyst and perform as homogeneous ones. However, the
glycerol conversion was lower than that of reaction without
removal of catalyst at the same reaction time, demonstrating
that the filtrated catalyst performed catalytic activity in the
form of heterogeneous phase and played more important
role in glycerol conversion as compared with the leached
active species. Thus, the heterogeneous phase was the main
active species for glycerol conversion.
The surface area and pore volume of the fresh and
reused catalysts are given in Table 5. The first recycling
gave similar activity to that of the fresh catalyst, although
it possessed a lower surface area and pore volume. The
reduction of the surface area and pore volume was mainly
ascribed to the blockage of the catalyst microspore by the
residual products, which could not be removed entirely by
washing with methanol. The sintering of active phase on
the catalyst surface could be ignored because of the low
reaction temperature. The XPS analysis data of the fresh
and recycled catalysts are given in Table 6. It could be
seen that K abundance on the catalyst surface decreased
gradually with the recycling times. Moreover, the formed
Table 5. The surface area and pore volume of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst in
recycling
Recycle times
BET area / (m2 g–1) Pore volume / (cm2 g–1)
Fresh catalyst
189
100
99
0.33
0.19
0.19
0.18
The recycling of 15% KF/γ-Al2O3 was executed because
of its high catalytic activity and GC selectivity. The
operation procedure was described in sections Catalytic
reaction and Procedure for recycling the catalyst. The
1
2
4
89
Table 6. XPS characterization of KF/γ-Al2O3 catalyst in recycling
Recycling times
K abundance / %
F abundance / %
O abundance / %
Al abundance / %
24.16
Fresh catalyst
5.03
4.91
4.19
5.87
5.89
6.28
64.94
64.49
64.89
1
4
24.71
24.64

Vol. 25, No. 1, 2014
Liu et al.
159
Figure 5. Possible reaction mechanism for transesterification of glycerol with DMC.
methanol stayed in the reaction solution would dissolve
KOH and partial KAlO2 on the catalyst surface gradually.
The violent stirring during reaction would further enhance
the dissolution rate and lead to the accelerated deactivation
of the reused catalyst. Thus, the potassium leaching should
be the main reason for the catalyst deactivation.
and glycidol. We found that glycerol and DMC could be
formed in the reaction of GC and methanol, indicating that
the reaction of glycerol with DMC was reversible. Thus,
it was advised to remove the formed methanol in order to
improve the glycerol conversion.
As to the formation of glycidol, there existed two
possible routes. The one resulted from the decomposition of
GC, the other was from the direct dehydration of glycerol.
For that, the mixture of glycerol and catalyst was heated to
80 oC and kept for 1.5 h. GC, glycidol, glycerol dicarbonate
were not detected in the product, indicating that the
formation of glycidol was from the decomposition of GC
rather than the direct dehydration of glycerol. Furthermore,
the interaction42 of epoxy group with carbon dioxide could
confirm that formation of glycidol from GC was also a
reversible reaction.
Based on the properties of basic catalyst and product
distribution, we proposed a possible mechanism (shown
in Figure 5) for the transesterification of glycerol and
DMC. The first four steps of possible reaction mechanism
illustrated in Figure 5 were similar to the one in reference.16
However, GC could react reversibly with methanol and
produce glycerol. Furthermore, as the side reactions, GC
could not only be decomposed to glycidol and CO2, but
also react with the excessive DMC to glycerol dicarbonate.
As mentioned above, the thermal treatment temperature
for KF/γ-Al2O3 affected GC formation slightly at the
temperature 100-400oC, because the formed new basic sites,
KOH and KAlO2 compensated the loss of coordinately
unsaturated F– ion at higher temperatures. However,
KF/γ-Al2O3 dried at 100 oC exhibited lower stability than
that calcined at 400 oC. For the first recycling of 15 wt.%
KF/γ-Al2O3 treated at 100oC, the glycerol conversion
decreased from 96.2% to 60.8% over fresh catalyst,
indicating that the active coordinately unsaturated F– ion
was not stable. In contrast, KF/γ-Al2O3 calcined at 400 oC
showed much higher stability. Glycerol conversion of
90.6% and 85.9% of GC yield were obtained at the fourth
recycling. This should be attributed to the formation of new
stable KAlO2 phases.
Proposed mechanism for transesterification of glycerol
and DMC
Ochoa-Gómez et al.16 had suggested that basic
catalyst with enough basic strength could activate the
primary hydroxyl group of glycerol and proposed a
reasonable reaction mechanism accordingly. As the
reaction by-products, glycidol and glycerol dicarbonate
were detected in the mixed products. Gade41 and Rokicki7
disclosed the formation of glycidol and glycerol dicarbonate
in their research work, respectively. However, few research
efforts concerned about the effect of formed methanol
Conclusions
In summary, KF/γ-Al2O3 prepared by a wet impregnation
way is an efficient solid base catalyst for the synthesis of GC
from glycerol and DMC. It was proved that [Al–OH···F–],
KOH and KAlO2 were the main active basic sites for GC
formation. Furthermore, it was obtained that the strong
basic sites not only promoted the conversion of glycerol,

160
Synthesis of Glycerol Carbonate by Transesterification of Glycerol and Dimethyl Carbonate
J. Braz. Chem. Soc.
but also enhanced the decomposition of GC into glycidol.
The deactivation of the catalyst was mainly caused by the
leaching of active potassium species. Moreover, elevating
the calcination temperature of KF/γ-Al2O3 could retard
the deactivation rate. Based on the product distribution, a
possible catalytic reaction mechanism was proposed.
17. Bell, J. B.; US Pat. 2,915,529 1959.
18. Alvarez, M. G.; Segarra, A. M.; Contreras, S.; Sueiras, J. E.;
Medina, F.; Figueras, F.; Chem. Eng. J. 2010, 161, 340.
19. Bai, R.; Wang,Y.; Wang, S.; Mei, F.; Li, T.; Li, G.; Fuel Process.
Technol. 2013, 106, 209.
20. Kim, S. C.; Kim,Y. H.; Lee, H.;Yoon, D.Y.; Song, B. K.; J. Mol.
Catal. B: Enzym. 2007, 49, 75.
Acknowledgments
21. Grey, R. A.; US Pat. 5,091,543 1992.
22. Naik, P. U.; Petitjean, L.; Refes, K.; Picquet, M.; Plasseraud,
L.; Adv. Synth. Catal. 2009, 351, 1753.
We thank the National Key Basic Research and
Development Program of China for financial support
(Project No. 2012CB215305).
23. Takagaki, A.; Iwatani, K.; Nishimura, S.; Ebitani, K.; Green
Chem. 2010, 12, 578.
24. Clark, J. H.; Chem. Rev. 1980, 80, 429.
References
25. Ando, T.; Brown, S. J.; Clark, J. H.; Cork, D. G.; Hanafusa, T.;
Ichihara, J.; Miller, J. M.; Robertson, M. S.; J. Chem. Soc.,
Perkin Trans. 2 1986, 1133.
1. Zhou, C. H.; Beltramini, J. N.; Fan, Y. X.; Lu, G. Q.; Chem.
Soc. Rev. 2008, 37, 527.
26. Wen, L.; Ji, C.; Li, Y.; Li, M.; J. Comb. Chem. 2009, 11, 799.
27. Qiu, P.; Yang, B.; Yi, C.; Qi, S.; Catal. Lett. 2010, 137, 232.
28. Ando, T.; Clark, J. H.; Cork, D. G.; Hanafusa, T.; Ichihara, J.;
Kimura, T.; Tetrahedron Lett. 1987, 28, 1421.
2. da Silva, G. P.; Mack, M.; Contiero, J.; Biotechnol. Adv. 2009,
27, 30.
3. Dasari, M.A.; Kiatsimkul, P. -P.; Sutterlin, W. R.; Suppes, G. J.;
Appl. Catal. A: Gen. 2005, 281, 225.
29. Vazquez, A.; Lopez, T.; Gomez, R.; Morales, A.; Novaro, O.;
J. Solid State Chem. 1997, 128, 161.
4. Pagliaro, M.; Ciriminna, R.; Kimura, H.; Rossi, M.;
Della Pina, C.; Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 4434.
5. Sonnati, M. O.;Amigoni, S.; de Givenchy, E. P. T.; Darmanin, T.;
Choulet, O.; Guittard, F.; Green Chem. 2013, 15, 283.
6. Ubaghs, L.; Fricke, N.; Keul, H.; Höcker, H.; Macromol. Rapid
Commun. 2004, 25, 517.
30. Xie, W.; Peng, H.; Chen, L.; Appl. Catal. A: Gen. 2006, 300,
67.
31. Hoydonckx, H. E.; De Vos, D. E.; Chavan, S. A.; Jacobs, P. A.;
Top. Catal. 2004, 27, 83.
32. Gerpen, J. V.; Fuel Process. Technol. 2005, 86, 1097.
33. Tanabe, K. In Catalysis by Acids and Bases; Tanabe, K.;
Imelik, B., eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1985.
7. Rokicki, G.; Rakoczy, P.; Parzuchowski, P.; Sobiecki, M.; Green
Chem. 2005, 7, 529.
8. Mei, H.; Zhong, Z.; Long, F.; Zhuo, R.; Macromol. Rapid
Commun. 2006, 27, 1894.
34. Wan, T.;Yu, P.; Gong, S.; Li, Q.; Luo,Y.; Korean J. Chem. Eng.
2008, 25, 998.
9. Burk, R. M.; Roof, M. B.; Tetrahedron Lett. 1993, 34, 395.
10. Mizuno, T.; Nakai, T.; Mihara, M.; Heteroat. Chem. 2010, 21,
99.
35. Murugan, C.; Bajaj, H.; Fuel Process. Technol. 2011, 92, 77.
36. Zhu, J. H.; Xu, Q. H.; Acta Chim. Sinica 1997, 55, 474.
37. Verziu, M.; Florea, M.; Simon, S.; Simon, V.; Filip, P.;
Parvulescu, V. I.; Hardacre, C.; J. Catal. 2009, 263, 56.
38. Alonso, D. M.; Mariscal, R.; Moreno-Tost, R.; Poves, M.;
Granados, M. L.; Catal. Commun. 2007, 8, 2074.
39. Castro, C. S.; Cardoso, D.; Nascente, P. A.;Assaf, J. M.; Catal.
Lett. 2011, 141, 1316.
11. Hu, J.; Li, J.; Gu, Y.; Guan, Z.; Mo, W.; Ni, Y.; Li, T.; Li, G.;
Appl. Catal. A: Gen. 2010, 386, 188.
12. Vieville, C.; Yoo, J.; Pelet, S.; Mouloungui, Z.; Catal. Lett.
1998, 56, 245.
13. George, J.; Patel,Y.; Pillai, S. M.; Munshi, P.; J. Mol. Catal. A:
Chem. 2009, 304, 1.
40. Di Serio, M.; Mallardo, S.; Carotenuto, G.; Tesser, R.;
Santacesaria, E.; Catal. Today 2012, 195, 54.
14. Climent, M. J.; Corma, A.; De Frutos, P.; Iborra, S.; Noy, M.;
Velty, A.; Concepción, P.; J. Catal. 2010, 269, 140.
15. Hammond, C.; Lopez-Sanchez, J. A.; Ab Rahim, M. H.;
Dimitratos, N.; Jenkins, R. L.; Carley,A. F.; He, Q.; Kiely, C. J.;
Knight, D. W.; Hutchings, G. J.; Dalton Trans. 2011, 40, 3927.
16. Ochoa-Gómez, J. R.; Gómez-Jiménez-Aberasturi, O.;
Maestro-Madurga, B.; Pesquera-Rodríguez,A.; Ramírez-López,
C.; Lorenzo-Ibarreta, L.; Torrecilla-Soria, J.; Villarán-Velasco,
M. C.; Appl. Catal. A: Gen. 2009, 366, 315.
41. Gade, S. M.; Munshi, M. K.; Chherawalla, B. M.; Rane, V. H.;
Kelkar, A. A.; Catal. Commun. 2012, 27, 184.
42. Li, Z.; Zhao,Y.;Yan, S.; Wang, X.; Kang, M.; Wang, J.; Xiang,
H.; Catal. Lett. 2008, 123, 246.
Submitted: August 2, 2013
Published online: November 29, 2013