Full text of DOI:10.1207/S15327841Mpee0401_5

This article was downloaded by: [Texas A & M International University]
On: 14 August 2015, At: 11:07
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London, SW1P 1WG
Measurement in Physical
Education and Exercise Science
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hmpe20
The Validity and Reliability of
the 12-Minute Swim Test in
Male Swimmers Ages 13-17
Dawn Huse , Patricia Patterson & Jeanne Nichols
Published online: 18 Nov 2009.
To cite this article: Dawn Huse , Patricia Patterson & Jeanne Nichols (2000) The
Validity and Reliability of the 12-Minute Swim Test in Male Swimmers Ages 13-17,
Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 4:1, 45-55, DOI: 10.1207/
S15327841Mpee0401_5
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327841Mpee0401_5
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the
information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.
However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness,
or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views
expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the
Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with
primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any
losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,
and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or
indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the
Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes.
Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan,

sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

MEASUREMENT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND EXERCISE SCIENCE, 4(1), 45–55
Copyright © 2000, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
The Validity and Reliability of the
12-Minute Swim Test in Male Swimmers
Ages 13–17
Dawn Huse, Patricia Patterson, and Jeanne Nichols
Department of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences
San Diego State University
The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of the Cooper
12-min swim test in high school male swimmers ages 13 to 17. Thirty-three boys per-
formed three 12-min swims and 1 maximal graded treadmill test within a 14-day pe-
riod. One practice swim was conducted 1 week prior to participation in this study.
VO2max was assessed by indirect calorimetry with open-circuit spirometry with the
Truemax 2400 metabolic cart (Consentius Technologies, Sandy, UT). Test–retest re-
liability of the 12-min swim assessed via 1-way analysis of variance indicated moder-
ate reliability (R = .66, 95% confidence interval [CI] = .42–.81), whereas concurrent
validity assessed via a Pearson product–moment correlation indicated a moderate re-
lation (r = .47, 95% CI = .15–.70, r2 = .22). Results indicate that the Cooper 12-min
swimming test is only moderately reliable after 2 practice swims and does not appear
tobeavalidfieldtestofaerobiccapacityinhighschoolmaleswimmersages13to17.
Key Words: aerobic capacity, physical fitness, swimming, oxygen consumption
Physical activity and physical fitness are important for people of all ages. Several
studies (Blair et al., 1993; Fletcher et al., 1992; Powell, Thompson, Caspersen, &
Kendrick, 1987) have indicated that inactivity is a primary risk factor for coronary
heart disease (CHD), with consequences as serious as hypertension, hypercholes-
terolemia, and smoking. Furthermore, aerobic exercise can help mitigate or control
diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and blood lipid abnormalities, thus decreasing the
risk of CHD (Fletcher et al., 1992). It is the opinion of the American College of
Sports Medicine (ACSM; 1995) that public health will continue to benefit by “get-
ting more people more active more of the time” (p. 4).
Requests for reprints should be sent to Dawn Huse, Providence Hospital, 6904 Providence Park
Drive, Mobile, AL 36695. E-mail: dhuse29@aol.com

46
HUSE, PATTERSON, NICHOLS
Recommendations about the importance of physical activity for children and
youth are contained in statements by the ACSM (1988), the National Institutes of
Health (1995) NIH Consensus Statement, and Healthy People 2000 (Public Health
Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1991). These articles
recommend at least 30 min of moderately intensive physical activity each day.
Furthermore, increases in the percentage of children participating in daily physical
education are advocated as one method of assisting the promotion of the public
health of children and youth.
Physical fitness testing is a common method of providing information about the
status of a student. Results of these tests can be used as feedback to students and
parents and as feedback to teachers on any needed curricular changes that might
enhance physical activity and, concomitantly, physical fitness. To ensure that
scores students receive on these tests can be meaningfully interpreted, there must
be evidence of their validity and reliability. Concurrent validity is generally exam-
ined by correlating scores obtained from a field test and a criterion test, whereas re-
liability is determined by examining the consistency of test scores across multiple
trials or days.
The criterion test for cardiovascular fitness is maximal oxygen uptake
(VO2max), which is the highest rate oxygen can be taken up and utilized by the body
during exercise (Cureton, 1994). However, because these tests are time consuming
and require special equipment and trained personnel, investigators have searched
for field tests that can be administered to large groups of people, utilizing minimal
equipment in a relatively short period of time.
Several studies have examined the validity and reliability of various field tests
of cardiovascular fitness in high school students. These include the 12-min
run–walk test (Doolittle & Bigbee, 1968; Maksud & Coutts, 1971), the 1-mile run
or walk (Buono, Roby, Micale, Sallis, & Shepard, 1991; McSwegin, Plowman,
Wolff, & Guttenberg, 1998), the 20-meter shuttle run (Liu, Plowman, & Looney,
1992; van Mechelen, Hlobil, & Kemper, 1986), the 9-min run test (Safrit & Wood,
1987), and the step test (Buono et al., 1991; Metz & Alexander, 1967). In general,
validity coefficients range from r = .42 to r = .90 with the majority of coefficients
at about r = .65. Reliability coefficients ranged from R = .61 to R = .92.
Although most research has been conducted on running tests, it is important to
examine the validity and reliability of other tests for those people who are not able
to run or for those athletes who do not participate in running-centered events. One
such alternative might be swimming. The Cooper 12-min swim test (Cooper,
1977) is a swimming field test that has been the target of limited research, with
only two studies examining its measurement properties. Conley, Cureton, Dengel,
and Weyand (1991) employed 36 men, ages 18 to 32, and examined validity by
correlating swim distances obtained from the 12-min swim test to peak oxygen up-
takes obtained from a continuous, grade-incremented treadmill running protocol.
The resultant correlation was r = .38. A second study (Conley, Cureton, Hinson,

12-MINUTE SWIM TEST
47
Higbie, & Weyand, 1992) examined both the validity and reliability of the 12-min
swim test in 34 women, ages 18 to 34. Results indicated a validity coefficient of r =
.34 and a test–retest reliability (within 7 days) of R = .98.
No other studies were found that examined the validity or reliability of the
12-min swim test. Moreover, these properties, particularly validity, are population
specific. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reli-
ability of the 12-min swim test in high school male swimmers.
METHODS
Participants
Thirty-three boys between 13 and 17 years of age participated in this study. These
boys were recruited from high school aquatics programs in the southwestern
United States and had participated in at least one season of either high school swim-
ming or water polo. All swimmers were in the 3rd week of the high school swim-
ming season at the start of testing. They completed the Physical Activity Readiness
Questionnaire (Thomas, Reading, & Shepard, 1992) along with an informed assent
and parental permission consent forms prior to participation. As part of the testing
procedures, all 33 students performed three 12-min swimming tests at his respec-
tive high school or age-group swimming pool as well as one maximal graded exer-
cise test at a southwestern university. One week prior to participating in the three
12-min swimming tests, each student completed a practice 12-min swim to become
familiar with the testing protocol.
Testing
Orderoftestcompletionwascounterbalancedtoavoidanytestingeffect.Theswim-
ming tests were conducted on 3 different days separated by 48 to 72 hr, with all test-
ingcompletedwithina14-dayperiod.Participantswereaskedtorefrainfromeating
a large meal prior to their tests and to refrain from vigorous exercise on the day of
their tests. At their first assigned meeting, students were asked their age; how many
seasons they had participated in high school swimming, high school water polo, or
both; their best event; and how many yards per week they trained in the pool.
Cooper 12-min swim test. The participant arrived at his respective high
school or age group swimming pool prepared to swim. A 5-min warm-up took
place after which the following instructions were given:
You will have 12 minutes to swim as far as possible. You may rest when nec-
essary, and you must use open turns instead of flip turns. You may begin on
my go.

48
HUSE, PATTERSON, NICHOLS
At the conclusion of 12 min, the total distance covered was measured to the nearest
yard by means of a tape measure that was placed at the edge of the pool adjacent to
the swimming lanes. After completing the 12-min swim, the swimmer’s radial
pulse was taken for 15 sec, and the time it took him to find and begin counting his
pulse was recorded. Radial pulse was taken by each participant at the conclusion of
the 12-min swim because the majority of the swimmers completed the time allot-
ment in the middle of the pool. When the swimmer heard the whistle indicating the
conclusion of the 12 min, he stood where he was and began taking his pulse by look-
ing at a pace clock on the edge of the pool. These procedures were practiced during
the initial swim trial 1 week prior to the start of the study. Identical procedures were
followed for each of the three swimming tests.
Maximal graded exercise test. The student arrived at the exercise physi-
ology laboratory prepared to perform a maximal graded exercise test. Height
and weight with shoes removed were measured and recorded to the nearest cen-
timeter and kilogram, respectively. He then was familiarized with the testing
procedures, the Quinton Model 65 treadmill (Quinton, Seattle, WA), the
Truemax 2400 metabolic cart (Consentius Technologies), the Hans–Rudolph
mouthpiece (2700B, Hans Rudolph, Inc., Kansas City, MO), and fit with a Polar
Heart Rate Monitor (Country Technologies, Gays Mills, WI). A 5-min warm-up
on the treadmill took place at a speed and grade that felt comfortable. During the
warm-up, the participant wore the mouthpiece and headgear to become familiar
with the equipment.
Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) was determined by indirect calorime-
try with open circuit spirometry. Prior to testing, the Truemax 2400 metabolic cart
was calibrated with room air and known samples of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Boys were familiarized with the maximal graded exercise test protocol and told
about the importance of exercising to exhaustion. The test protocol consisted of
one 3-min stage at 3 mph and 0% grade and one 3-min stage at a speed up to 6 mph
and 0% grade followed by 1-min stages increasing the grade 2% every minute until
the participant could no longer run. The final speed was determined by the partici-
pant’s comfort level and ability. Expired air was collected continuously and ana-
lyzed every 30 sec for O2 and CO2 content. At the conclusion of the test, the
student was monitored until his heart rate returned to near preexercise values.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were calculated for
all variables. Test–retest reliability and 95% CIs were calculated as recommended
by Morrow and Jackson (1993) for the swimming tests, using an intraclass correla-

12-MINUTE SWIM TEST
49
tion coefficient (R) obtained from a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Reli-
ability for 1 day of testing was estimated using the formula suggested by
Baumgartner (1989). A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was employed to de-
termine whether there were significant differences between swimming test scores.
The validity of the Cooper 12-min swim test was calculated with a Pearson prod-
uct–moment correlation (r) and 95% CIs to examine the relation between the
12-min swim and VO2max. In addition, the coefficient of determination (r2) was cal-
culated to determine the amount of shared or explained variation between the
12-min swim and VO2max
.
RESULTS
Means and standard deviations of physical characteristics of the participants are
presented in Table 1. Seventy-six percent (n = 25) of the boys considered swim-
ming their best aquatic event, whereas 24% (n = 8) considered water polo their best
aquatic event. Aquatic experience ranged from 1 to 8 years. Their training level
ranged from 16,000 to 50,000 yards per week, with 76% of the boys swimming an
average of 16,000 yards per week. Table 2 provides the performance data.
A one-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant difference be-
tween swimming performance across the 3 testing days, F(2, 64) = 6.54, p = .0026.
Post hoc tests using Tukey HSD indicated a significant difference between Swim 1
and Swim 3, with no other significant differences being detected. Therefore, sub-
sequent analyses were conducted on Swim 2 and Swim 3.
Reliability
Test–retest reliability (and 95% CIs) for Swims 2 and 3 indicated moderate reliabil-
ity (R = .66, 95% CI = .42 to .81). As expected, when reliability was estimated for a
single trial, it decreased (R = .49, 95% CI = .22 to .71).
TABLE 1
Means and Standard Deviations of Descriptive Data (N = 33)
Characteristics
M
SD
Age (year)
15.72
178.62
68.12
1.01
5.15
9.08
2.39
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Body mass index
21.31

50
HUSE, PATTERSON, NICHOLS
TABLE 2
Means and Standard Deviations of Performance Data (N = 33)
Variable
M
SD
Distance
Swim 1 Distance (yard)
Swim 2 Distance (yard)
833.09
863.21
888.61
875.91
135.30
62.15
109.48
73.54
66.27
61.19
24.78
7.62
Swim 3 Distance (yard)
Mean of Swims 2 and 3 (yard)
Swim heart ratea (bpm)
VO2max (ml/kg/min)
Maximum heart rateb (bpm)
194.42
9.08
Note. bpm = beats per minute.
aRefers to the average of the two heart rates that were measured immediately following the 12-min
swimming test. bRefers to the maximum heart rate achieved while running on the treadmill.
Validity
The treadmill test indicated that, as a group, the boys reached approximately 95%
of their age-predicted maximum heart rate, whereas 89% of the boys achieved a re-
spiratory exchange ratio greater than 1.05. The concurrent validity coefficient be-
tween the average of Swims 2 and 3 to VO2max indicated low to moderate validity (r
= .47, 95% CI = .15–.70, r2 = .22).
Figure 1 provides a scattergram presenting the relation between 12-min swim
distance and VO2peak
.
DISCUSSION
Coaches and practitioners continually search for field tests that are inexpensive,
quick, and easy to administer but at the same time provide meaningful information
about athletes’ abilities. In this study, the validity and reliability of the Cooper
12-min swim test as a measure of cardiorespiratory endurance were examined in
high school male swimmers.
Reliability
Test–retest reliability for the swim test was examined across three trials spaced 2 to
3 days apart. Significant differences were found between Trials 1 and 3, suggesting
the need for at least one practice trial. However, of even more importance is the
finding that reliability for the average of Swim Trials 2 and 3 was R = .66, whereas it
decreased to R = .49 when estimated for a single trial.

12-MINUTE SWIM TEST
51
FIGURE 1 Scatter diagram and linear regression line describing the relation between 12-min
swim distance (yards) and treadmill VO2peak (ml/kg/min; Y = 10.69 + .059x, r = .47, SEE [stan-
dard error of estimate] = 6.82).
Reliability is affected by several factors, one of which is the variability of the
group. In general, detecting reliable differences is easier (i.e., reliability is higher)
in a heterogeneous group than a homogeneous group. The participants in this study
were all high school swimmers, and the performance data in Table 2 suggest that
this group was rather homogeneous. Thus, the moderate findings for reliability
were not altogether unexpected.
Another factor affecting reliability is the motivation or effort level of the partic-
ipants, with maximal efforts yielding higher reliability. A practice swim trial was
completed prior to data collection in addition to Trial 1 being eliminated from
analysis. The swimmers also self-reported that each felt he had “done his best.”
However, it is possible that pacing problems confounded the ability of the swim-
mers to give a maximal effort in this single-stage field test. Although the partici-
pants were experienced swimmers and, therefore, accustomed to swimming
intervals during their training, the 12-min test was considerably longer than the in-
terval training in which they engaged. In an attempt to determine the relative inten-
sity of each field trial, pulse rate was taken immediately on completion of each
trial. Although the participants received instruction and practice in palpating their
radial pulse, the accuracy of this procedure is questionable. Thus, the recorded
heart rates may not accurately reflect the true intensity of the trials. Use of a down-
loadable waterproof heart rate monitor, not possible in this study, would improve

52
HUSE, PATTERSON, NICHOLS
the ability to examine these issues and provide more definitive information about
the swimmers’ efforts.
The results of this study demonstrate lower reliability than those reported previ-
ously on other field tests of cardiovascular fitness on adolescents of similar ages
(Buono et al., 1991; Liu et al., 1992; Safrit & Wood, 1987). These studies reported
reliability coefficients ranging from R = .80 to R = .95. Reasons for these differ-
ences are not readily apparent but may be a function of sample variability and mo-
tivation level.
Conley et al. (1992) examined test–retest reliability of the 12-min swim with
college-age women and reported much higher reliability, R = .98, for two trials.
One possible reason for the higher reliability in the Conley et al. study is the larger
variance in their sample. These women swam, on average, about 278 yards less
than the swimmers in this study, yet the standard deviation was 21 yards larger
than that reported in this study.
Validity
Concurrent validity is determined by examining the strength of the relation be-
tween the field and criterion tests. In this case, the field test was the 12-min
swim test, whereas the criterion test was VO2max measured during a maximal
graded treadmill test and the resultant validity coefficient was r = .47. To exam-
ine validity properly, a maximal effort is required for both tests. Empirical evi-
dence collected during the treadmill test indicates that participants gave a
maximal effort. However, self-report heart rates provide the only evidence for
the level of effort put forth during the swim test. Although the boys swam, on
average, at 70% of their maximum heart rate measured on the treadmill, several
factors may account for this seemingly low intensity. First, heart rate during
prone exercise is approximately 12 bpm lower than that during upright exercise
(DiCarlo, Sparling, Millard-Stafford, & Rupp, 1991). Second, heart rate was pal-
pated at the end of the swim. This likely underestimated the true heart rate dur-
ing the swim. Third, lack of extensive experience in taking one’s pulse may
have caused the swimmers to miss some beats while counting the rapid rates as-
sociated with the exercise. Thus, the true exercise heart rates were probably con-
siderably higher than those reported.
Two of the most important factors affecting the validity of this test are swim-
ming skill and experience in pacing. Due to the drag created by water, skill in
swimming is a crucial determinant of success in a timed test. Individuals with a
similar VO2max but greater skill will cover a far greater distance in 12 min com-
pared to an unskilled swimmer. Similarly, experience in pacing is critical to the re-
sults. Although there was no difference statistically between Trials 2 and 3, the
boys swam, on average, 25 yards farther in Trial 3 than in Trial 2. This suggests
that they were still improving their ability in pacing to optimize the distance cov-

12-MINUTE SWIM TEST
53
ered in 12 min. Thus, both pacing and swimming skill may be confounding vari-
ables when examining the validity of the 12-min swim test.
An additional factor affecting validity is the choice of criterion test. This study
employed a multistage treadmill test for VO2max assessment. This decision was
based on previous research examining the effect of protocol on VO2max assess-
ment. Two studies (Holmer, Lundin, & Eriksson, 1974; Holmer, Stein, Saltin,
Ekblom, & Astrand, 1974) employed elite trained swimmers and examined
whether there were differences in VO2max obtained while swimming in a flume or
while running on a treadmill. In both studies, VO2max scores were significantly
lower when conducted in a swimming flume. In fact, Holmer, Stein, et al. (1974)
found VO2max scores to be 17% lower in the flume than on the treadmill. The au-
thors cited the difficulty of the swimmers in achieving a comfortable swimming
position while wearing a mouthpiece as possible reasons for this discrepancy.
Thus, it was felt that a treadmill protocol would yield the most accurate assessment
of VO2max
.
Results of this study are similar to both studies by Conley and colleagues
(Conley et al., 1991; Conley et al., 1992), who also compared the 12-min swim test
to a maximal graded treadmill test. Validity coefficients were r = .38 and r = .34 for
college-age men and women, respectively. However, the validity coefficient of r =
.47 in this study is lower than coefficients reported with other field tests of cardio-
vascular endurance in adolescents.
In summary, the findings of this study suggest that the 12-min swim test may
not possess adequate validity or reliability as a measure of cardiovascular fitness in
high school male swimmers. However, the test does have practical use as a mea-
sure of progress in training for competitive and recreational swimmers. To better
determine the level of effort during a swim test and, therefore, possibly elucidate
the confounding effects of motivation, it is recommended that future studies em-
ploy downloadable heart rate monitors to improve the accuracy of heart rate scores
during swimming. It is suggested that this test be used only as a measure of swim-
ming progress or improvement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dawn Huse was a graduate student in Exercise Physiology at San Diego State Uni-
versity at the time of this study.
This work was completed in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master
of science degree.
REFERENCES
American College of Sports Medicine. (1988). Physical fitness in children and youth. Medicine and Sci-
ence in Sports and Exercise, 20, 422–423.

54
HUSE, PATTERSON, NICHOLS
American College of Sports Medicine. (1995). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription
(5th ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Baumgartner, T. A. (1989). Norm referenced measurement: Reliability. In M. J. Safrit & T. M. Wood
(Eds.), Measurement concepts in physical education and exercise science (pp. 45–72). Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics.
Blair, S. N., Powell, K. E., Bazarre, T. L., Early J. L., Epstein, L. H., Green, L. W., Harris, S. S., Haskell,
W. L., King, A. C., Koplan, J., Marcus, B., Paffenbarger, R. S., Jr., & Yeager, K. K. (1993). Physical
inactivity. Circulation, 88, 1402–1405.
Buono, M. J., Roby, J. J., Micale, F. G., Sallis, J. F., & Shepard, W. E. (1991). Validity and reliability of
predicting maximum oxygen uptake via field tests in children and adolescents. Pediatric Exercise
Science, 3, 250–255.
Conley, C. S., Cureton, K. J., Dengel, D. R., & Weyand, P. G. (1991). Validation of the 12-minute swim
as a field test of peak aerobic power in young men. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23,
766–773.
Conley, C. S., Cureton, K. J., Hinson, B. T., Higbie, J., & Weyand, P. G. (1992). Validation of the
12-minute swim as a field test of peak aerobic power in young women. Research Quarterly for Exer-
cise and Sport, 63, 153–161.
Cooper, K. H. (1977). The aerobics way. New York: Bantam.
Cureton, K. J. (1994). Aerobic capacity. In Morrow, J. R., Jr., Falls, H. B., & Kohl, H. W., III. (Eds.), The
Prudential FITNESSGRAM technical reference manual (pp.33–56). Dallas, TX: Cooper Institute
for Aerobics Research.
DiCarlo, L. J., Sparling, P. B., Millard-Stafford, M. L., & Rupp, J. C. (1991). Peak heart rates during
maximal running and swimming: Implications for exercise prescription. International Journal
Sports Medicine, 12, 309–312.
Doolittle, T. L., & Bigbee, R. (1968). The twelve-minute run–walk: A test of cardiorespiratory fitness of
adolescent boys. Research Quarterly, 39, 491–495.
Fletcher, G. F., Blair, S. N., Blumenthal, J., Caspersen, C., Chaitman, B., Epstein, S., Falls, H.,
Sivarajan, F., Froelicher, V. F., & Pina, I. L. (1992). Statement on exercise: Benefits and recommen-
dations for physical activity programs for all Americans. Circulation, 86, 340–344.
Holmer, I., Lundin, A., & Eriksson, B. O. (1974). Maximum oxygen uptake during swimming and run-
ning by elite swimmers. Journal of Applied Physiology, 36, 711–714.
Holmer, I., Stein, E. M., Saltin, B., Ekblom, B., & Astrand, P. (1974). Hemodynamic and respiratory re-
sponses compared in swimming and running. Journal of Applied Physiology, 37, 711–714.
Liu, N. Y., Plowman, S. A., & Looney, M. A. (1992). The reliability and validity of the 20-meter shuttle
test in American students 12 to 15 years old. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63,
360–365.
Maksud, M. G., & Coutts, K. H. (1971). Application of the Cooper twelve-minute run–walk test to
young males. Research Quarterly, 42, 54–59.
McSwegin, P. J., Plowman, S. A., Wolff, G. M., & Guttenberg, G. L. (1998). The validity of a one-mile
walk test for high school age individuals. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science,
2, 47–63.
Metz, K. H., & Alexander, J. F. (1967). An investigation of the relationship between maximum aerobic
work capacity and physical fitness in twelve- to fifteen-year-old boys. Research Quarterly, 41,
75–81.
Morrow, J. R., & Jackson, A. W. (1993). How “significant” is your reliability? Research Quarterly for
Exercise and Sport, 64, 352–355.
National Institutes of Health. (1995). Physical activity and cardiovascular health. NIH Consensus State-
ment, 13, 1–33.
Powell, K. E., Thompson, P. D., Caspersen, C. J., & Kendrick, J. S. (1987). Physical activity and the in-
cidence of coronary heart disease. Annual Review of Public Health, 8, 253–287.

12-MINUTE SWIM TEST
55
Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1991). Healthy People 2000:
National health promotion and disease prevention objectives (DHHS Publication No. [PHS]
91–50212). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Safrit, M. J., & Wood, T. M. (1987). The test battery reliability of the health-related physical fitness test.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58, 160–167.
Thomas, S., Reading, J., & Shepard, R. J. (1992). Revision of the Physical Activity Readiness Question-
naire (PAR–Q). Canadian Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 338–345.
van Mechelen, W., Hlobil, H., & Kemper, H. C. G. (1986). Validation of two running tests as estimates
of maximal aerobic power in children. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational
Physiology, 55, 503–506.