A New Class of Rigid Multi(azobenzene) Switches Featuring Electronic Decoupling: Unravelling the Isomerization in Individual Photochromes

Article abstract of DOI:10.1021/jacs.9b02544

We report a novel class of star-shaped multiazobenzene photoswitches comprising individual photochromes connected to a central trisubstituted 1,3,5-benzene core. The unique design of such C₃-symmetric molecules, consisting of conformationally r

Full text of DOI:10.1021/jacs.9b02544

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Article
A new class of rigid multi(azobenzene) switches featuring electronic
decoupling: unravelling the isomerization in individual photochromes
Agostino Galanti, Jasmin Santoro, Rajesh Mannancherry, Quentin Duez, Valentin Diez-Cabanes,
Michal Valášek, Julien De Winter, Jérôme Cornil, Pascal Gerbaux, Marcel Mayor, and Paolo Samorì
J. Am. Chem. Soc., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b02544 • Publication Date (Web): 15 May 2019
Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 16, 2019
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A new class of rigid multi(azobenzene) switches featuring electronic decoupling:
unravelling the isomerization in individual photochromes
Agostino Galanti,†a Jasmin Santoro, †b Rajesh Mannancherry,c Quentin Duez,e Valentin Diez-Cabanes,f Michal
Valášek,b Julien De Winter,e Jérôme Cornil,f* Pascal Gerbaux,e* Marcel Mayor,b,c,d* Paolo Samorìa*
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a Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, ISIS UMR 7006, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, 67000 Strasbourg, France. E-mail:
samori@unistra.fr
b Karlsruhe Institute of Technology KIT, Institute of Nanotechnology, P.O. Box 3640, 76021 Karlsruhe,
Germany.
c Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, St. Johannsring 19, 4056 Basel, Switzerland. E-mail:
marcel.mayor@unibas.ch
d Lehn Institute of Functional Materials (LFM), School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-Sen University (SYSU),
Guangzhou 510275, China.
e Organic Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, University of Mons, Place du Parc 20, 7000 Mons,
Belgium. E-mail: pascal.gerbaux@umons.ac.be
f Laboratory for Chemistry of Novel Materials, University of Mons, Place du Parc 20, 7000 Mons, Belgium. E
mail: jerome.cornil@umons.ac.be
ABSTRACT
We report a novel class of star-shaped multi-azobenzene photoswitches comprising individual photochromes
connected to a central trisubstituted 1,3,5-benzene core. The unique design of such C3-symmetric molecules,
consisting of conformationally rigid and pseudo-planar scaffolds, made it possible to explore the role of electronic
decoupling in the isomerization of the individual azobenzene units. The design of our tris-, bis- and mono(azobenzene)
compounds limits the π-conjugation between the switches belonging to the same molecule, thus enabling their
efficient and independent isomerization of each photochrome. An in-depth experimental insight by making use of
different complementary techniques such as UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, high performance liquid
chromatography and advanced mass spectrometry methods as ion mobility revealed an almost complete absence of
electronic delocalization. Such evidence was further supported by both experimental (electrochemistry, kinetical
analysis) and theoretical (DFT calculations) analyses. The electronic decoupling provided by this molecular design
guarantees a remarkably efficient photoswitching of all azobenzenes, as evidenced by their photoisomerization
quantum yields, as well as by the Z-rich UV photostationary states. Ion mobility mass spectrometry was exploited for
the first time to study multi-photochromic compounds revealing the occurrence of a large molecular shape change in
such rigid star-shaped azobenzene derivatives. In view of their high structural rigidity and efficient isomerization, our
multi-azobenzene photoswitches can be used as key components for the fabrication of complex stimuli-responsive
porous materials.
INTRODUCTION
Molecules and supramolecules that are capable to undergo structural rearrangements when subjected to an external
stimulus have attracted a great deal of attention as they can represent the key building blocks for the fabrication of
responsive molecular devices.1 Sophisticated dynamic functions are at the basis of many processes in Nature,
ultimately ruling the most complex phenomena of life. Such a plethora of complex functions takes place in chemical
systems which are able to respond to a variety of independent inputs including chemical, electrochemical and
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photochemical stimuli.2 By mimicking Nature, one among the greatest challenges in the realization of artificial
switches and motors consists in the integration of multiple and independent responsive units in a single molecular
system.3 Among various inputs, the use of photons has been regarded as one of the most promising for technological
application thanks to the possibility of remote application with high spatiotemporal resolution, without generating
waste products.4 Recently, increasing interest has been devoted to the design and synthesis of multi-photochromic
architectures.5 This is particularly appealing since it allows to realize systems capable to toggle between multiple
states (in principle 2n if all n photochromic units are distinguishable) in contrast to conventional photochromes, which
are typically bistable systems.6 The integration of more than one photochromic unit within the same backbone should
allow to individually address each state by irradiation with light at different wavelengths, provided the isomers of each
photochrome have distinct spectral features. Nevertheless, the development of orthogonally-responsive systems is
still in an embryonal phase.3 Conversely, if all photochromes in the molecular backbone are equivalent, one could
obtain a highly contrasted photoresponse.7 The implementation of multiple switches in the same covalent scaffold
showed to be not a trivial task, since in order to guarantee the photoactivity of all units, interchromophore
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interactions such as conjugation or energy transfer must be avoided.6a, Azobenzene is the most popular
photochromic compound, and its celebrity is due to the large structure rearrangement occurring upon conversion
from the E to the Z isomer, alongside with its photochemical robustness.9 Such characteristics make azobenzene
particularly suitable as molecular-scale actuators. In order to exploit and/or amplify the shape variation of the switch
to a greater length scale, it is vital to embed such a unit in a conformationally rigid molecular scaffold.10 Towards this
end, a viable strategy consists of including them into rigid aromatic structures. However, such a solution typically
prevents full or even partial photochromism of the system, since electron delocalization precludes the access to
independent photoreaction pathways.11 A systematic research work was executed in order to find the ideal
substitution pattern ensuring the coexistence of structural rigidity and satisfying photoswitching capacity; in this
framework, little was done on systems containing more than one photochromic unit.12 In particular, star-shaped
multi-azobenzene systems were realized by mutual chromophore connection to non-planar,12a, 13 or to quasi-planar12b-
d cores. However, the isomerization behavior of the individual switches has been characterized only to a partial extent
1
by means of H-NMR spectroscopy; in the case of mutual connection via a central amine linker, the undesirable
presence of electronic delocalization among the chromophores was observed.12a
Nonetheless, it is worth pointing out that the electronic decoupling between the photochromes is indeed a necessary
target in order to preserve the photoactivity of such a multichromophoric system.10-11, 14 Inspired by the shape of rigid
and highly planar C3-symmetrical aromatic systems, which have been successfully exploited as organic ligands for
supramolecular coordination complexes and metal-organic frameworks,15 we designed and synthesized a simple
symmetrical aromatic system containing up to three azobenzene units. Recently, we reported the tris(azobenzene)
system 1 and explored its 2D self-assembly at the solid-liquid interface by in-situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
analysis.16 Such a system is composed by three azobenzene arms connected through a central benzene ring
substituted in 1,3,5-positions. This substitution guarantees the absence of photochromism quenching, while the high
rigidity imposed by the aromatic core offers large conformational changes upon isomerization. Here we chose to use
carboxylic functions as they are the principal end group employed in organic building blocks for metal-organic
frameworks; moreover such functional groups, thanks to their strong and highly directional H-bonding, are known to
give rise to 2D and 3D self-assembled structures with peculiar topologies.17 Although this substitution generally is not
found to be detrimental for the photochromic performance of azobenzene switches, we have decided to undertake a
detailed study to demonstrate the effectiveness of our design. The demonstration of its photochromism requires an
in-depth analysis on photoisomerization efficiency of each azobenzene unit, thereby unravelling the subtle details of
inter-chromophoric interactions. This issue has never been addressed so far by combining different experimental
methods to explore simultaneously the variation in the photophysical properties and volumetric/conformational
changes upon isomerization.
In order to fully unveil the photochromism of each individual azobenzene embedded in a rigid multichromophoric
scaffold, we have extended our study to a series of planar multi-azobenzene compounds having either one, two or
three switches branching out in the 1,3,5-positions on a central benzene unit (Figure 1). To gain a comprehensive
insight, detailed investigations on the photophysical properties and photoisomerization quantum yields performed by
UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy have been combined to high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ion-
mobility mass spectrometry (IMMS) to bestow information onto the photogenerated isomer mixtures. The electronic
properties of such multiphotochromic switches were also investigated by means of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and
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differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). Both HPLC and IMMS were used to separate the four possible (E,E,E), (E,E,Z),
(E,Z,Z) and (Z,Z,Z) isomers of 1 upon UV light irradiation. On the one hand, HPLC was employed to determine the
composition of the photostationary states (PSS) and to follow the Z → E thermal isomerization kinetics; by studying
the temporal evolution of the isomer mixture, we could directly prove the independent kinetic behavior of each
azobenzene unit embedded within the same molecular scaffold. On the other hand, IMMS provided unambiguous
evidence for the large difference in shape of the aforementioned isomers,18 as a result of their structural rigidity. To
shed further light onto the multi-photochromism and the shape variation of the various isomers, we have designed
three novel star-shaped model compounds in which the diazene-1,2-diyl groups have been progressively substituted
with similar (in contour length and rigidity) yet non-photoresponsive ethyn-1,2-diyl units, i.e. the bis(azobenzene) 2,
mono(azobenzene) 3 as well as the derivative 5 exhibiting three 1,2-diphenylethyne (tolane) arms. As reference
compounds, we have also investigated two linear azobenzene derivatives, namely extended 4-[(biphenyl-4-
yl)diazenyl]benzoic acid 4 and the commercially available 4-(phenyldiazenyl)benzoic acid 6 (Figure 1). Our
investigation suggests that it is possible to design relatively small rigid molecules having efficient, fully independent
(i.e. electronically decoupled) photochromic units by simply connecting them in the meta- position on a central
benzene ring. Upon E → Z isomerization, the various isomers of compounds 1-3 show different shapes, as evidenced
by the change in the collisional cross section (CCS) of their ions, a quantity that is directly correlated to the
corresponding ion geometries in the gas phase. These evidences given by ion mobility mass spectrometry represent
also the first investigation conducted on a multi-photochromic compound with this powerful technique. We could also
show that the separated Z isomer(s) of 1 could be converted to the thermodynamically stable all-(E) structure within
the mass spectrometer by collisional heating in the gas phase.
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Figure 1. Structure formulae of the compounds employed in the present study.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical synthesis
Our synthetic strategy towards the four members of the star-shaped azobenzene family 1-3, and 5 is displayed in the
Supporting Information (Schemes SI 1-4). While the synthesis of C3-symmetric photoresponsive derivative 1, as well as
of its non-photoactive analogue 5 was already reported,16 both unsymmetrical derivatives 2-3 were stepwise
assembled using Pd catalyzed Suzuki cross-coupling protocol between a three-directional core (e.g. 1,3,5-
tribromobenzene) and the corresponding arm moieties. Non-photoactive tolane arm was obtained by a sequence of
Sonogashira coupling and Miyaura borylation, whereas azobenzene arms were assembled via the Mills reaction of
aromatic amine with nitroso compound. A similar sequence of reactions was used for the preparation of the linear
azobenzene derivative 4. Detailed synthetic protocols of all new compounds are provided in the Supporting
1
Information and the identity of all compounds was corroborated by their full characterization based on H- and 13C-
NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry data and elemental analyses.
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Photochemical characterization
In a first instance, the photophysical properties of compounds 1-6 and the light-induced isomerization of azobenzene-
containing compounds have been investigated in DMSO with the addition of a base excess to ensure their complete
solubilization. Particular attention was paid to such measurements, as they could provide the first evidence on the
extent of electronic coupling between the photoswitchable moieties of our interest. Such properties are summarized
in Table 1. The UV-Vis absorption spectra (Figure S 31) of all-(E) tris(azobenzene) compound 1 and its star-shaped
bis(azobenzene) 2 and mono(azobenzene) 3 derivatives exhibit two characteristic transitions related to the
azobenzene chromophore (Azo): a higher energy band due to the π-π* transition and a lower energy n-π* transition.
For 1-3, the absorption maxima are located at ca. 370 nm for the π-π* and ca. 455 nm for the lower energy transition.
When compared to the linear azobenzene chromophore 4, a slight bathochromic shift is observed (about 10 nm),
which together with an intensity increase (if compared to the absorption spectrum of 4 reported in ε multiplied by a
factor of three, Figure S 31) and a partial broadening, evidences that weak conjugation occurs between the arms of 1-
3 despite the meta substitution, as previously reported on similar star-shaped systems.19 Compounds 2-3 display one
additional transition located in the UV region (ca. 320 nm) which can be ascribed to the 1,2-diphenylethyne
chromophore unit (PE), as shown by comparison with the C3-symmetrical non-photochromic derivative 5. Despite the
existence of partial conjugation between the chromophores in our star-shaped systems, an additive behavior of the
absorption spectra of the single chromophores is evident, by observing the ε values of the most intense transitions of
Azo and PE units (Table 1), which enlightens that the transitions are substantially localized on each chromophore unit.
This is clearly revealed by observing that the maxima of Azo-centered transitions are constant between 1, 2 and 3.
Moreover, the model linear Azo chromophore 4 indicates that the λmax related to the π-π* transition is located at ca.
360 nm, a wavelength which should be compared to the known position of the same band for azobenzene (ca. 315
nm9a) and 4-(phenyldiazenyl)benzoic acid 6 (ca. 335 nm); such a red shift can therefore be attributed to the extension
of the conjugated system by including one additional phenylene unit in the para-position with respect to the
azobenzene moiety.
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Table 1. Photochemical characterization of compounds 1-6 in air-equilibrated DMSO (+ exc. NaOH) at 298 K. a
λ
all-(E) isomer [nm] (ε / 103 [L mol-1 cm-1])
Φ
x 102 b
Φ
x 102 c
max
E → Z
Z → E
UV – PSS
composition [%]d
Vis – PSS
composition [%]d
Single
Azof
Single
Azof
Overalle
Overalle
π-π* PE
π-π* Azo
n-π* Azo
55 (Z,Z,Z)
27 (E,Z,Z)
13 (E,E,Z)
5 (E,E,E)
61 (Z,Z)
29 (E,Z)
10 (E,E)
73 (Z)
9 (Z,Z,Z)
17 (E,Z,Z)
30 (E,E,Z)
44 (E,E,E)
13 (Z,Z)
32 (E,Z)
55 (E,E)
32 (Z)
1
2
-
370 (110)
455 (5.7)
3.3
8.8
28
77
320 (65)
370 (77)
455 (3.7)
4.5
9.5
47
98
3
5
320 (100)
320 (130)
370 (42)
-
455 (1.8)
-
9.1
-
100
-
27 (E)
68 (E)
4
6
-
-
360 (30)
335 (21)
455 (1.4)
450 (0.8)
9.6
11
88
70
a Excess NaOH (6.0 eq. for 1-3 and 5, 2.0 eq. for 4,6). b UV π-π* irradiation, λirr = 367 nm (FWHM = 9 nm). c Vis n-π* irradiation, λirr = 451 nm (FWHM =
20 nm). d Determined by HPLC-MS. e Overall isomerization quantum yield, calculated using the ε of the compounds (see text). f Isomerization quantum
yield of the single chromophore unit, calculated using the ε of the linear azobenzene compound 4 (see text).
The photoisomerization of compounds 1-4 and 6 was studied upon irradiation with UV (λmax = 367 nm) and Vis (λmax
=
451 nm), while proof of the non-photoreactivity of 5 was already given in previous studies.16 UV irradiation of the
aforementioned compounds in DMSO solution showed spectral variations typical for E → Z isomerization of
azobenzene derivatives (Figure 2), with a progressive decrease in the absorbance in the (E)-Azo π-π* region,
accompanied by an increase in the absorbance in the higher energy UV region, together with the same variation in the
visible range. Both evidences are related to a decrease in concentration of the (E)-isomer(s) accompanied by an
obvious increase in the (Z) ones upon reaching the photostationary state (UV – PSS). The initial spectral features were
seen to recover partially upon subsequent Vis irradiation reaching another PSS (Vis – PSS), while complete recovery
was encountered only by storing the solution in the dark over several days. It is crucial to note for all compounds,
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especially for tris(azobenzene) 1 and bis(azobenzene) 2, the presence of clear isosbestic points throughout both E → Z
and Z → E photoconversions, which provide unambiguous evidence for the absence of inter-chromophore
interactions.11 The composition of the UV – and Vis – PSS was characterized by HPLC (Table 1): thanks to the known
difference in molecular dipole moment of the E and Z isomers of azobenzenes, all possible isomeric forms of 1-3 could
be separated by employing this technique, thus proving the formation of all the expected isomers for the multi-
azobenzene compounds (qualitative absorption spectra in Figure 2, a, b insets, Table 1). The absorption spectra of
single isomers obtained by HPLC are also nicely comparable with the spectra simulated at a TD-DFT level (see details
on methods and Figure S 37 in the Supporting Information). It is worth noting that for both the tris(azobenzene) 1 and
bis(azobenzene) 2 derivatives, it is possible to reach a (Z)-rich UV – PSS (Table 1, quantified by HPLC-MS, see the
Supporting Information for experimental details). The efficiency of E → Z and Z → E photoreactions was estimated by
evaluating their quantum yields (Φ). The values given in Table 1 and indicated as “overall” Φ were calculated by using
the ε of each compound; therefore, they refer to the quantum yield of isomerization of all azobenzene units within
each molecular scaffold, while the “single Azo” values were calculated using the ε of the linear azobenzene 4, and
provide a comparative estimation of the Φ of the single photochrome.20 It is particularly interesting to benchmark the
“single azo” Φ of star-shaped compounds 1-3 with standard azobenzene derivatives, since it is generally known that
conjugation between the chromophores drastically lowers the photoreaction efficiency.11b We will take azobenzene as
benchmark, showing for E → Z isomerization Φ ≈ 0.14 – 0.15 in polar solvents (λirr ≈ 345 nm);11b, 21 in comparison, 4-
(phenyldiazenyl)benzoic acid 6 shows a slightly lower value (Φ ≈ 0.11) due to the presence of the electron-
withdrawing carboxyl moiety in the para-position with respect to the chromophore.20 Extension of the π-conjugated
backbone in 4 is accompanied by an almost negligible reduction (Φ ≈ 0.10) of efficiency for the process; interestingly,
for the star-shaped mono(azobenzene) derivative 3, Φ ≈ 0.09 and for both multi-azobenzene scaffolds 2 and 1, the
“single Azo” Φ exhibits the same value (Table 1). Conversely, for Z → E photoreaction induced by Vis irradiation, the
quantum yields of 2 and 1 (Table 1) are even higher than azobenzene (for the latter, Φ ≈ 0.63, λirr ≈ 436 nm) itself.22
However, the values obtained from these experiments are expected to display a higher uncertainty, since the
concentration of the (E)-isomer(s) in the initial conditions (UV – PSS) was not zero.23
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Figure 2. UV-Vis spectral variation upon UV irradiation in DMSO with an excess of base: black line, no irradiation, red line UV PSS,
blue dotted line Vis PSS. a) Compound 1, c = 2.0 x 10-5 M inset, absorption spectra of the single isomers recorded upon HPLC
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separation black line (E,E,E)-1, green line (E,E,Z)-1, light blue line (E,Z,Z)-1, dark blue line (Z,Z,Z)-1, b) 2, c = 2.0 x 10-5 M inset, black
line (E,E)-2, green line (E,Z)-2, light blue line (Z,Z)-2, c) 3, c = 2.0 x 10-5 M inset, black line (E)-3, green line (Z)-3, d) 4, c = 6.0 x 10-5 M.
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Electrochemistry
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The redox properties of azobenzene have been widely studied, and there is general agreement on the mechanism of
its electrochemical reduction in aprotic media.24 Cyclic voltammetry (CV) has been successfully employed to obtain a
qualitative insight into the extent of the π-conjugation of multi-azobenzene systems by focusing on their first
reduction reaction.11 Here, we evaluated the electrochemical properties of compounds 1-6 together with azobenzene
as reference in dry DMF, using tetra-n-butylammonium hexafluorophosphate (c = 0.1 M) as supporting electrolyte in a
comparative fashion by means of cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV, Figure S 34-36,
potentials reported vs. ferrocene redox couple, see Supporting Information for detailed description, procedure and
experimental data). In order to obtain a correct assignment of the redox processes visualized in the experiments, we
compared the voltammograms of 1-6 with azobenzene in our experimental conditions. All potentials expressed here
have been determined at the peaks of the DPV experiments. Azobenzene shows a quasi-reversible reduction peak at -
1.77 V, with a spacing between the cathodic and anodic peaks (ΔEp) of 70 mV, coherently with what is reported in the
literature (Figure S 36). In all cases, the voltammograms of compounds 1-6 owing carboxylic acid functionalities
showed a complex redox behavior, which we assigned to the subsequent reduction of the carboxylic fragment and
diazene moiety (when present, Figure S 34-36). Compound 6 presents a quasi-reversible redox reaction at -1.81 V (ΔEp
= 70 mV from CV) associated to the reduction of the azobenzene unit (Figure S 36). Analogously, compound 4 shows
the redox reaction on the diazo moiety occurring at -1.76 V (ΔEp = 80 mV from CV, Figure S 34); the decrease in energy
for its reduction is coherent with the extension of its π-conjugated core, while the slight broadening indicates a slightly
lower reversibility. Interestingly, the electrochemical behavior of 1 demonstrated to be analogous to 4 and 6, except
for its broader character (Figure S 34, ΔEp > 150mV for Azo reduction, from CV). Importantly, DPV clearly shows only
one peak for the reduction of the azobenzene units, centered at -1.75 V, i.e., at a potential comparable to the value
obtained from 4. The latter, together with the absence of any splitting for this electrochemical process, gives further
evidence for the efficient electronic decoupling between the photochromic units obtained with our molecular
design.11a The bis(azobenzene) 2 and mono(azobenzene) 3 star-shaped derivatives display broad CV curves (Figure S
35), in which the redox behavior of the azobenzene unit(s) is overshadowed by the irreversible reaction occurring on
the carboxylic moieties (Figure S 34). Nevertheless, using DPV, it is possible to identify the reduction peak of the Azo
units on 2 at -1.75 V, hence occurring at potential analogous as for 1 and 4. By and large, the above-mentioned
experiments, highlighting that the electrochemical reduction of azobenzene units in multiphotochromic derivatives 1
and 2 occur at the same redox potential, give further evidence for their electronic decoupling.
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Kinetics of Z → E thermal isomerization
The Z → E thermal reactions for 1-3 were followed by HPLC in order to monitor the population of each isomer over
time starting from the UV – PSS. For the sake of comparison, the thermal back-isomerization for 4 was studied by UV-
Vis absorption spectroscopy. Multi-azobenzene compounds are known to undergo isomerization from the all-(Z) to
the all-(E) forms via the mixed (Z,E) isomers, and the reaction mechanism can be treated as a consecutive and
irreversible cascade reaction involving first-order reactions.11a, 25 Upon plotting the isomer fraction over time (Figure S
42-56), we could fit the evolution curves with the suitable kinetic equations (detailed procedure, equations and
experimental data in the Supporting Information), thus obtaining the reaction rates for each azobenzene unit (Table S
2). The activation energy parameters for the thermal isomerization were determined by Eyring analysis (Error!
Reference source not found.). Such evidences made it possible to prove that for our tris(azobenzene) system 1, the
mechanism of the thermal reaction follows the expected pseudo-first order cascade reaction: (Z,Z,Z)-1 → (E,Z,Z)-1 →
(E,E,Z)-1 → (E,E,E)-1. The bis(azobenzene) 2: (Z,Z)-2 → (E,Z)-2 → (E,E)-2 exhibits equivalent behavior. For such cascade
reactions, it is necessary to account for the statistical character of the first reaction(s), since the first isomerization
could occur on three equivalent azobenzene units for 1, and on two for molecule 2. In our case, the normalized rate
constant |k1| for the (Z,Z,Z)-1 → (E,Z,Z)-1 reaction was divided by three. Similarly, the normalized rate constant |k2|
accounting for (E,Z,Z)-1 → (E,E,Z)-1 and (Z,Z)-2 → (E,Z)-2 reactions was divided by two. It is worth mentioning that, for
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both the tris(azobenzene) 1 and bis(azobenzene) 2, the thermal isomerization rate constants are substantially
analogous, thus indicating that the azobenzene units do not influence one another; they are electronically and
geometrically decoupled, thus explaining the absence of cooperative effects. Since the azobenzene units are
reciprocally connected by a rigid phenylene spacer, complete electronic decoupling could not be postulated only
based on the electronic spectra of compounds 1-3 (see above). Those in fact enlighten the occurrence of partial π-
conjugation between the azobenzene chromophores when embedded in the π-extended star-shaped system, when
compared to 4. Indeed, the examination of the activation energy parameters for the thermal Z → E isomerization
obtained under dark revealed that all azobenzene units in compounds 1 and 2 display the same kinetic behavior;
interestingly, the reference star-shaped mono(azobenzene) 3 displays analogous rate constants and activation energy
parameters (Table 2 and Table S 2). Reference compound 4 instead shows slightly faster thermal isomerization, if
compared to the star-shaped compounds 1-3 (Error! Reference source not found. and Table S 2). The values are
however within the same order of magnitude and are comparable with similar rigid azobenzene and bis(azobenzene)
derivatives found in the literature. 13a Here, it is visible how the mild electron-withdrawing character of the carboxylic
group in the para-position with respect to the azobenzene moiety does not sensibly lower the activation energy for
the thermal isomerization, in contrast to stronger electron acceptor groups involving mesomeric effects (e.g. nitro –
NO2 or cyano –CN).26
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Table 2. Kinetic data for the thermal Z → E isomerization of compounds 1-4.a
∆푮 ≠
∆푯 ≠
∆푺 ≠
∆푬풂 [kJ mol ]
≠
k [s-1] b
|k2|
-1
b [kJ mol-1]
[kJ mol-1]
[J mol-1]
∆푮ퟏ≠
∆푮ퟐ≠
∆푯ퟏ≠
∆푯2≠
∆푺ퟏ≠
∆푺ퟐ≠
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
∆푬풂≠ퟏ|
∆푬풂≠ퟐ|
|
∆푮ퟑ≠
104
104
104
102
∆푯3≠
88
∆푺ퟑ≠
-52
-54
-47
-52
∆푬풂≠ퟑ
91
|k1|
k3
|
90
-
|
|
3.8
10-6
X
3.7
X
X
3.9 X
10-6
1
104
104
88
-
89
-55
-52
91
92
-
10-6
3.5
10-6
4.2 X
10-6
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
104
90
-
88
-
-
-
-48
90
3.8 X
10-6
3
-
-
-
-
-
90
-
-
-
92
1.1 X
10-5
4c
-
-
86
-
-
88
aParameters with appendix x1 refer to (Z,Z,Z)-1 → (E,Z,Z)-1 isomerization, and those with x2 to (E,Z,Z)-1 → (E,E,Z)-1 and (Z,Z)-2 → (E,Z)-2 and x3
to (E,E,Z)-1 → (E,E,E)-1, (E,Z)-2 → (E,E)-2 and (Z)-3-4 → (E)-3-4. The normalized rate constants |k1| and |k2| were divided by three or two in
order to account for the statistical character of the (Z,Z,Z)-1 → (E,Z,Z)-1, (E,Z,Z)-1 → (E,E,Z)-1 and (Z,Z)-2 → (E,Z)-2 isomerizations, respectively.
bAt 298 K. cDetermined by UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy.
Quantum-chemical modeling
DFT calculations give us access to the electronic and optical properties of the single molecules in their different
isomers (see Table 3, and further details in Supporting Information). Therefore, we can analyze the degree of
decoupling between the different chromophores by comparing the properties of the full (E) and (Z) isomers of
compound 1 with the isomers of the reference compound 4, as already done at the experimental level in the first two
sections. A first factor which reduces the coupling between the different units is the non-planarity of the π-backbone.
The steric hindrance between the H atoms of the central phenyl ring and those of the adjacent rings results in a
dihedral angle θ (see Figure S 38) between these rings of about 38⁰ in all studied compounds. Note that the excitonic
coupling between the different photochromic branches (measured as the splitting of π-π*/ n-π* transitions in (E,E,E)-1
and (Z,Z,Z)-1 isomers, see Figure S40) is considerably reduced (31%) if compared with the planar structures due to the
steric hindrance (see Figure S41). Regarding the electronic properties, the similar energy gaps of the reference
compound 4 with respect to compound 1 (3.47 eV for both (E)-4 and (E,E,E)-1; 3.51 vs 3.48 eV for (Z)-4 and (Z,Z,Z)-1,
see Table 3) show that there is no major increase in the conjugation when connecting the different chromophores to
the central ring. At the optical level, the n-π* transitions of (Z) isomers present very similar max values in all
compounds. In contrast, for the π-π* transitions of the (E) isomers, there is a small red shift (11 nm) when going from
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compound 4 to compound 1 (Table 3). The same trends were also obtained at the experimental level (Table 1), thus
evidencing that (E) isomers are more affected by inter-branch coupling with respect to (Z) isomers. The delocalization
of the orbitals evidenced in Figure S 39 suggests that the photo-excitations are initially delocalized over the three
branches and only get localized over a single unit upon nuclear relaxation in the excited state due to the weak spatial
overlap (and hence electronic coupling) between the three units. Looking at the energy difference between the Z and
E isomerization, we find that this quantity is the same (0.65 eV) for all compounds (Table 3), thus corroborating the
similar values of the activation energies estimated by Eyring analysis (see Table 2).
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Table 3. DFT calculated properties of compounds 1-6 in their different isomeric forms.
λ
[nm] (f)d
∆E
[eV]b
E
g
[eV]c
max
θ [⁰]a
Z→E
π-π* PE
π-π* Azo
n-π* Azo
(E,E,E)
(E,E,Z)
(E,Z,Z)
(Z,Z,Z)
(E,E)
(E,Z)
(Z,Z)
(E)
38.4
37.7
37.8
37.9
37.7
37.7
37.8
37.7
38
-1.97
-1.31
-0.65
0
3.47
3.24
3.24
3.48
3.2
-
396 (1.52)
-
-
394 (1.41)
502 (0.12)
1
-
378 (0.95)
504 (0.15)
-
-
504 (0.15)
-1.30
-0.65
0
365 (1.09)
395 (1.39)
-
2
3
3.22
3.43
3.18
3.43
3.47
3.51
3.79
3.78
3.66
348 (0.97)
380 (1.64)
502 (0.12)
352 (1.64)
-
504 (0.14)
-0.65
0
358 (2.47)
382 (1.8)
-
(Z)
358 (2.22)
-
502 (0.11)
(E)
37
-0.65
0
-
385 (1.16)
-
4
5
6
(Z)
36.8
38.2
-
-
-
500 (0.09)
-
-
-
361 (2.14)
-
(E)
-0.64
0
-
-
342 (0.93)
-
(Z)
-
490 (0.05)
a Average dihedral angle formed by the central phenyl ring and the adjacent phenyl ring in the chromophores, as represented in Figure S
b
c
37 Relative energy calculated as the difference in energies with respect to the full (Z) isomers. Electronic gap determined as the
d
difference between the HOMO-LUMO energies.
(nm) and oscillator strength (f) computed for the lowest excited state associated
max
to the 1,2-diphenylethyne unit (π-π* PE) and the azobenzene arm in the E (π-π* Azo) and Z (n-π* Azo) forms; note that there might be
other closely-lying excited states associated to one arm not discussed here.
Ion mobility mass spectrometry (IMMS)
The conformational rigidity of our compounds 1-3, combined with the electronic decoupling of the various
azobenzenes grafted to the central benzene core, motivated us to probe their shape variation resulting from the E – Z
isomerization of their photochromic units. Towards this end, we used ion mobility mass spectrometry (IMMS) to
discriminate the different molecular configurations, since this technique allows to resolve mixtures of isomeric ions
based on the differences in collisional cross sections (CCS), a property directly related to the gaseous ion geometries.
When exposed to ion mobility separation, ions drift under the influence of an electric field and undergo collisions with
a buffer gas, typically nitrogen or helium. The ions drift time across the mobility cell is associated to the probability of
experiencing collisions with the buffer gas, hence is directly proportional to the ion CCS.18a, 27 Nevertheless, compared
to the conventional methods, ionized species are mandatory for conducting IMMS experiments. For the present study,
compounds 1-3 bearing carboxylic acid function can be readily deprotonated upon Electrospray Ionization (ESI) in the
negative ion mode. The mass spectra obtained upon ESI of these star-shaped azobenzene derivatives 1-3 present
intense signals, with the most intense peak corresponding to the mono-deprotonated species: [1 -H+]- at m/z 749.2, [2
-H+]- at m/z 745.2 and [3 -H+]- at m/z 741.2 (Figure S63). Multiply charged ions are also detected, but for our discussion
we will only focus on the singly charged ones. When subjected to ion mobility, the singly charged ions [1 -H+]-, [2 -H+]-
and [3 -H+]- from non-irradiated solutions, are all characterized by monomodal Arrival Time Distributions (ATD)
associated to the all-(E) species. On the other hand, when analyzing solutions irradiated at the UV – PSS, it is striking
to monitor the appearance of additional signals at lower drift times (Figure 3). The latter observation clearly
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enlightens that the UV-generated configurations present more compact geometries compared to the all-E isomer.
Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that for the star-shaped compounds studied here, the number of signals
observed in the ATDs after irradiation corresponds to the number of different configurations, with four, three and two
peaks resolved for respectively 1, 2 and 3. The drift times are then used to estimate the experimental collisional cross
section, i.e., CCSexp through a calibration procedure.28 Again, the CCS values confirm that the E to Z isomerization
induces the compaction of the ion structures with, for instance, CCSexp drastically decreasing from 269 to 187 Å2 when
passing from the (E,E,E) to the (Z,Z,Z) configurations (Table 4) of 1. Interestingly, as a reference experiment, we
exposed to UV irradiation and analyzed by IMMS the reference linear azobenzene 4. The (Z) and (E) configurations
could not be resolved with our IMMS instrument when comparing the ATDs of the irradiated and the non-irradiated
solutions, although the photoisomerization reaction is attested by UV-Vis measurements (Figure 2 d). This indicates
that the large molecular shape rearrangements that are detected for the star-shaped compounds arise from their
embedment into large and rigid π-conjugated scaffolds.
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Table 4. Collisional cross sections of the various isomers of 1-3 determined by IMMS.
CCS (Å2)
269
CCS (Å2)
273
CCS (Å2)
277
(E,E,E)-1
(E,E,Z)-1
(E,Z,Z)-1
(Z,Z,Z)-1
(E,E)-2
(E,Z)-2
(Z,Z)-2
(E)-3
(Z)-3
237
239
241
220
224
187
Figure 3. IMMS experiments on compounds 1-3 upon UV light irradiation in solution, Arrival Time Distributions (ATD) recorded for:
a) tris(azobenzene) 1, b) bis(azobenzene) 2 and c) mono(azobenzene) 3. Black line no light irradiation, red line UV PSS.
To cast further light onto the photoisomerization detected by IMMS and in particular to provide evidence for the
stepwise nature of the photoisomerization of 1, we followed the light-induced process upon on-line irradiation of a
DMSO solution with continuous infusion in the ESI source (Figure 4). We observed a gradual appearance of the
aforementioned photogenerated peaks relative to the (E,E,Z)-1, (E,Z,Z)-1 and (Z,Z,Z)-1 isomers, until the UV – PSS is
reached. Interestingly, upon integration of the peaks obtained for the four isomers at the UV – PSS, we measured the
following apparent isomeric ratio: 63 % (Z,Z,Z)-1, 30 % (E,Z,Z)-1, 3 % (E,E,Z)-1, 4 % (E,E,E)-1. The discrepancy between
the IMMS and HPLC-MS data (Table 1) comes from the fact that IMMS data are extracted for singly deprotonated ions
while the HPLC-MS quantification is performed for all charge states and possible adducts.
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Figure 4. Photoisomerization of 1 followed by IMMS. A solution of 1 was irradiated with UV light upon IMMS separation. Left,
temporal evolution of the arrival time distributions. Right, isomer fraction over time determined by integration of the IMMS signals.
Figure 5. Collisionally-induced Z → E isomerization of the (Z,Z,Z)-1 ions at different collision energies (Trap CE). a) Trap CE = 4 V; b)
Trap CE = 14 V; c) Trap CE = 18 V; d) Trap CE = 22 V. Left, 2D IMMS/HPLC-MS data recorded for [1-H+]- at m/z 749.2 : HPLC retention
time reported on x axis, ion mobility drift time on y axis. . Signal at 3 min 5 s retention time corresponds to (Z,Z,Z)-1, 3 min 20 s
(Z,Z,E)-1, 3 min 40 s (Z,E,E)-1, 4 min 30 s (E,E,E)-1. Right, Arrival time distributions recorded at various Trap CE for the HPLC signal
appearing at 3 min 5s and corresponding to (Z,Z,Z)-1.
Finally, we investigated the possibility to induce the in-flight Z → E isomerization of azobenzene ions by collisional
activation, prior to their separation by ion mobility.18a In this case, we employed an HPLC set-up to separate the four
isomers before injection in the mass spectrometer and performed the aforementioned experiments on the isolated
photogenerated (Z,Z,Z)-1 isomer. Such an experiment benefits from the great versatility of ion manipulations offered
by the Waters Synapt G2-Si mass spectrometer. After HPLC separation of the isomers of 1 and the preparation of the
gas phase ions upon ESI(-), the molecular anions ([1 -H+]- at m/z 749.2) are mass-selected with the quadrupole mass
selector (see SI for further experimental details). The ions are then subjected to collisional heating (collisional
activation) prior to the ion mobility separation by gradually increasing their kinetic energy within the Trap cell (Figure
5, figure S64). It is worth noting that we only used low voltages (Trap CE) to induce isomerization and avoid ion
decomposition. At default Trap CE (4 V), only the signature of the (Z,Z,Z) ions is detected upon IMMS, demonstrating
the successful isolation of the corresponding species by HPLC separation. This also reveals that no isomerization is
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induced in source or in the ion transfer regions with our experimental setup. Upon progressive increase of the Trap
CE, additional signals are detected in the ATDs and are related to the progressive appearance of the E isomers.
Interestingly, the successive appearance of the (E,Z,Z), (E,E,Z) and finally (E,E,E) isomers also reveals that the thermal
isomerization of the (Z,Z,Z) ions is a stepwise process. These experimental evidences suggest that upon collisional
activation, in analogous fashion as heating, it is possible to induce the thermal Z → E isomerization of azobenzenes,
and hence to generate the more thermodynamically stable E isomer(s) within the timescale (µs) of their residence in
the Trap Cell prior to the ion mobility separation.
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CONCLUSIONS
In summary, we have designed and synthesized a novel family of multi-azobenzene compounds by connecting
individual photochromes to a central trisubstituted 1,3,5-benzene core. Such star-shaped systems consist of
conformationally rigid, pseudo-planar scaffolds. The unique design in our tris-, bis- and mono(azobenzene)
compounds limits the π-conjugation between the switches belonging to the same molecule, thus enabling their
efficient isomerization and the independent behavior of each unit with respect to the state of the neighboring units,
while maintaining a high structural rigidity. An in-depth experimental insight has been attained by making use of
different complementary techniques such as UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse
voltammetry, high performance liquid chromatography and advanced mass spectrometry methods such as ion
mobility. The additivity of the UV-Vis absorption spectra relative to the all-(E) isomer, together with the appearance of
clear isosbestic points upon photoswitching of mono-, bis- and tris(azobenzene) compounds provided unambiguous
evidences for a weak coupling between the chromophores. This was further shown by cyclic and differential pulse
voltammetry, evidencing that the reduction of the azobenzene units within the multi(azobenzene) compounds occur
at the same potential. The weak electronic coupling between the branches allows for a remarkably efficient
photoswitching of all azobenzenes, as evidenced by their photochemical quantum yields, not substantially different
from the values shown by reference mono-azobenzenes. Moreover, all star-shaped compounds showed Z-rich UV
photostationary states. Ion mobility mass spectrometry was exploited to study multi-photochromic compounds
revealing the occurrence of a large molecular shape change in our rigid star-shaped azobenzene derivatives. While
the combination of conventional photophysical studies with mass spectrometry-related techniques such as IMMS shall
be used in the future to single out the photoswitching properties of multi-chromophoric arrays, we envisage that our
C3-symmetrical star-shaped multiphotochromic design enables to develop a host of complex stimuli-responsive
systems, in particular for the realization of light-triggered porous materials such as metal-organic-, or covalent-organic
frameworks.
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
The Supporting Information is available free of charge via the Internet at: www.------.com
Detailed experimental procedures, synthesis and characterization of the products, computational methodologies.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Authors
*samori@unistra.fr, *marcel.mayor@unibas.ch, *pascal.gerbaux@umons.ac.be, *jerome.cornil@umons.ac.be
Author Contributions
†These authors contributed equally.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully thank Dr. Sara Bonacchi, Dr. Martin Herder and Dr. Stefano Casalini for enlightening discussions. This
work was supported by the EC through the Marie Sklodowska-Curie ITN project iSwitch (GA-642196), the Agence
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Nationale de la Recherche through the LabEx project Chemistry of Complex Systems (ANR-10-LABX-0026_CSC) and the
International Center for Frontier Research in Chemistry (icFRC). M.V. and M.M. acknowledge financial support by the
Helmholtz Research Programm STN (Science and Technology of Nanosystems). Computational resources were
provided by the Consortium des Équipements de Calcul Intensif (CÉCI) funded by the Belgian National Fund for
Scientific Research (F.R.S.-FNRS) under Grant 2.5020.11. Q.D. and J.C. are FNRS research fellows.
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