Photo- and solvatochromic properties of nitrobenzospiropyran in ionic liquids containing the [NTf2]- anion

Article abstract of DOI:10.1039/b806641h

The photo-, thermo- and solvatochromic properties of 2,3-dihydro-1′, 3′,3′-trimethyl-6-nitrospiro-[1-benzopyran-2,2′-1H-indole] (BSP-NO₂) were studied in ILs containing the anion [NTf ₂]^- by UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, ab initio molecular orbital theory and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. It was found that the kinetics and thermodynamics of the BSP-NO₂ ? MC (merocyanine) equilibrium was sensitive to the nature of the cation. It was also observed that the imidazolium cation can form a through-space orbital interaction with the MC isomer, rather than a simple electrostatic interaction, thus preventing the MC conversion back to the BSP-NO₂ isomer. The BSP-NO₂ ? MC equilibrium thus serves as a model system for studying modes of interaction of the cations in ionic liquids. the Owner Societies.

Full text of DOI:10.1039/b806641h

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PAPER
www.rsc.org/pccp | Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
Photo- and solvatochromic properties of nitrobenzospiropyran in ionic
liquids containing the [NTf2]ꢀ anionw
Robert Byrne,a Kevin J. Fraser,b Ekaterina Izgorodina,b Douglas R. MacFarlane,b
Maria Forsythc and Dermot Diamond*a
Received 18th April 2008, Accepted 25th June 2008
First published as an Advance Article on the web 11th August 2008
DOI: 10.1039/b806641h
The photo-, thermo- and solvatochromic properties of 2,3-dihydro-10,30,30-trimethyl-6-nitrꢀospiro-
[1-benzopyran-2,20-1H-indole] (BSP-NO2) were studied in ILs containing the anion [NTf2] by
UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy, ab initio molecular orbital theory and density functional theory
(DFT) calculations. It was found that the kinetics and thermodynamics of the BSP-NO2 2 MC
(merocyanine) equilibrium was sensitive to the nature of the cation. It was also observed that the
imidazolium cation can form a through-space orbital interaction with the MC isomer, rather than
a simple electrostatic interaction, thus preventing the MC conversion back to the BSP-NO2
isomer. The BSP-NO2 2 MC equilibrium thus serves as a model system for studying modes of
interaction of the cations in ionic liquids.
Introduction
Interest in the photo- and thermochromic effects in benzospir-
opyran (BSP, see Fig. 1), has gained much renewed attention
over the last decade due to its unique properties and transfor-
mations.1 BSP can exist in two thermodynamically stable
states and is capable of interconversion between the two states
Fig. 1 Reversible photo- and thermochromic interconversion be-
under various external stimuli. This ability to reversibly switch
the molecular form has led to great interest for applications
tween nitrobenzospiropyran (BSP-NO2, left) and merocyanine isomer
(MC, right).
such as light-sensitive eyewear,2 information recording and
processing,3 optical memory,4 molecular devices5,6 and optical
sensing.7–9
BSP consists of two heterocyclic moieties linked together by
previously and it has been shown that when the absorption
maxima of MC (expressed in wavenumbers) or the transition
a common tetrahedral sp3 carbon atom. The two halves of the
energies are plotted against solvent polarity parameters such
as ET(30) values,10 Kosower’s Z values,11 Brooker’s Xb
values12 and Brownstein’s values,13 reasonably linear plots
molecule are in two orthogonal planes (A and B, Fig. 1). The
benzopyran part (B) is the common structure to all spiropyran
compounds, and the heterocyclic part (A) is built upon a
are obtained. In addition to the solvatochromic effect, it has
benzofused azaheterocycle. BSP undergoes a heterocyclic ring
also been shown that changes in the absorption maxima,
cleavage at the C–O spiro bond that results in the formation of
the intramolecular Lewis acid–base equilibrium between
a planar, zwitterionic and highly conjugated chromophore
back to BSP-NO2, are intrinsically solvent-dependent.14
that absorbs strongly in the visible region, this being the
merocyanine isomer (MC).
BSP-NO2 and MC, and the thermal relaxation rates of MC
Furthermore, the MC isomer has a phenolate anion site
Like other merocyanines, the MC is a negative solvatochro-
mic dye,1 i.e. with increasing solvent polarity the absorption
band undergoes a hypsochromic (or blue) shift. The effect of
through which certain (d- and f-element) metal ions can bind,
giving rise to a new absorption band in the visible spectrum.
The type of metal ion only slightly influences the spectral
the solvent on the electronic spectra has been investigated
properties of the complexes, in contrast to the relaxation time
which can differ by one order of magnitude.15 Thus, metal ion
coordination can influence the photochromic properties of
BSP-NO2.
a Adaptive Sensors Group, National Centre for Sensor Research,
School of Chemical Sciences, Dublin City University, Dublin 9,
Ireland. E-mail: dermot.diamond@dcu.ie; Fax: +353 1 7007995;
Tel: +353 1 7005404
Ionic liquids (ILs) are a class of novel solvents with very
interesting properties which are attracting the attention of a
growing number of scientists and engineers, as shown by the
increasing number of publications in recent years.16 ILs are
organic salts composed of anions and cations that are in
the liquid state at ambient conditions and many show negli-
gible volatility and non-flammability.17 Hence, they are being
actively investigated as alternative solvent media in synthesis,18
b School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800Victoria,
Australia
c ARC Centre of Nanostructured Electromaterials, School of Physics
and Materials Engineering, Monash University, Clayton,
3800Victoria, Australia
w Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Fig. S1,
showing the correlation between Ke and ET(30) values in molecular
solvents and ionic liquids. See DOI: 10.1039/b806641h
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catalysis,19 polymerization,20–22 separation,23 electrochemis-
try24,25 and electrochemical devices.26,27 However, the basic
science involved with fully characterizing these ILs is still in its
infancy, and this may be holding back the complete and most
efficient utilization of these potentially, and only in some
cases,28 ‘‘green’’ solvents. Before the full potential of ILs as
solvent systems can be explored, more information about their
physicochemical properties needs to be gathered. A number of
fundamental physicochemical studies have already been pub-
lished on ILs29–33 ranging from the empirical determination of
polarity utilizing the solvatochromic pyridinium N-phenolate
betaine dye,34,35 picosecond time-resolved fluorescence of
2-aminoquinoline36 to the photoisomerization of 3,30-diethy-
loxadicarbocyanine iodide37 and 40,7-dihydroxyflavylium38
have been used to understand the many specific (e.g. hydro-
gen-bond donor and/or acceptor interactions) and non-
specific interactions (e.g. Coulomb and Debye forces) within
the ionic liquid. ILs can replace molecular solvents only if the
chemist is able to compare ILs with generally used reaction
media in a rational way; however, much further information is
needed to allow the categorization of new and existing ILs
more precisely in terms of solvent properties.
purified thoroughly by column chromatography,41 dried under
vacuum at 40 1C for 48 h, and stored under argon at 20 1C
before analysis. Absorption spectra were recorded on a Varian
Cary 100 Bio UV-Visible Spectrophotometer, this instrument
is also equipped with a temperature-controlled 6 ꢂ 6 multicell
holder. The ultraviolet irradiation source was a Spectroline
ENF-24OC/FE UV-365 nm obtained from Spectronics Cor-
poration. The white light source was a Leica CLS 150ꢂ, 150 W
obtained from Leica Microsystems. Samples were irradiated at
a distance of 7 cm in a quartz cuvette. To determine the
equilibrium constant Ke between BSP-NO2 and MC in the
various solvents, standard solutions of BSP were made up to
10ꢀ3 M in acetonitrile. 1 ml of this solution was placed in a vial
and the solvent removed by N2 stream. To this 10 ml of the
selected IL (Fig. 2) was added to the vial and placed in
sonicator for 20 minutes at 20 1C. Samples were stored under
argon in the dark at 20 1C for 15 h before the absorbance
measurement was taken.
Results
The physical properties of BSP-NO2 in solution are deter-
mined by the ground-state equilibrium (Fig. 1) between the
BSP-NO2 form and the MC form. The absorption spectrum of
BSP-NO2 in acetonitrile at room temperature has two major
bands with maxima in the UV and the visible. It is accepted
that BSP-NO2 in acetonitrile at room temperature has maxima
In this work we have investigated the spectroscopic proper-
ties of BSP-NO2 in a number of bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)-
amide, [NTf2]ꢀ, ionic liquids. At the outset, the goal was to use
this probe molecule to learn more about the modes of inter-
action and polarity of a number of the cations used in
common ionic liquids. In the process some unusual BSP-
NO2 spectroscopic effects have been observed that may be of
interest in the various applications discussed above.
at lBSP = 336 nm (eBSP = 0.8 ꢂ 104 Mꢀ1 cmꢀ1) and lMC
=
555 nm (eMC = 3.5 ꢂ 104 Mꢀ1 cmꢀ1).14 This data is well
documented and for the results discussed herein, the properties
of BSP-NO2 in acetonitrile are used as point of reference. To
support and validate our experimental results, the solvato-
chromic probe Reichardt’s dye 30 has been used as a
solvent-dependent reference process to define empirically a
solvent polarity scale, called the ET(30) scale.
Experimental
2,3-Dihydro-10,30,30-trimethyl-6-nitrospiro-[1-benzopyran-2,20-
1H-indole] (BSP-NO2) was purchased from Aldrich and used
as received. Acetonitrile was HPLC grade and used without
further purification. The phosphonium IL [P6,6,6,14][NTf2]
and ammonium IL [Oct3NMe][NTf2] were supplied by
Cytec industries and Merck respectively. [C3mpyr][NTf2],
[C4mpyr][NTf2], [emim][NTf2] and [edmim][NTf2] were
synthesized as described previously.39,40 All ILs, Fig. 2, were
In determining the equilibrium constants Ke between BSP-
NO2 and MC in these ILs, it was required that the samples
were kept in the dark at 20 1C for 15 h to reach equilibrium. At
equilibrium, from Beer’s law, we have
½MCꢃ
A
Ke ¼
¼
ð1Þ
½BSPꢃ 3:5 ꢂ 104 ꢂ C ꢀ A
where Ke is the equilibrium constant between BSP-NO2 and
MC, A is the equilibrium absorbance at the absorption max-
imum, C is the total concentration of BSP-NO2 initially
dissolved and eMC = 3.5 ꢂ 104 Mꢀ1 cmꢀ1 for the MC form
of BSP-NO2 according to Flannery.42
This thermal equilibrium between the BSP-NO2 and MC is
affected by the change in solvent polarity; polar solvents
promote the formation of the coloured (MC) form and non-
polar solvents promote the formation of the colourless (BSP-
NO2) form. This relationship is reinforced by plotting the Ke
value vs. ET(30) values in the corresponding molecular
solvents and achieving good linearity.14 The correlation be-
tween the p–p* transition energies of the MC isomer and
ET(30) implies the contributions of different solute–solvent
interactions, as measured by Reichardt’s dye 30, are nearly the
same as for the p–p* absorptions of MC. Therefore, transition
Fig. 2 Cations and anion used in this study: ethylmethylimidazolium
[emim]+, ethyldimethylimidazolium [edmim]+, N-propyl-N-methyl-
pyrrolidium [C3mpyr]+
,
N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidium [C4mpyr]+
+, trioctylmethylammonium
and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide [NTf2]ꢀ.
,
trihexyltetradecylphosphonium [P6,6,6,14
]
+
[N1,8,8,8
]
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Table 1 Equilibrium and photo-physical constants of BSP-NO2 and ET(30) values of various molecular solvent and ionic liquids. (BSP-NO2 and
Reichardt’s dye 30 concentration 10ꢀ4 M)
a
Solvent
lmax for MC/nm
Ae
Ke ꢂ 10ꢀ2b
k ꢂ 10ꢀ2/sꢀ1c
ET(30)/kcal molꢀ1
Acetonitrile
Ethanol
554
539
578
549
551
574
544
548
550
0.13
0.15
0.01
0.14
0.13
0.04
0.15
0.11
0.14
3.85
4.57
0.51
4.16
3.85
1.15
4.57
3.24
4.16
c
8.8
1.9
70.0
6.9
7.8
8.5
2.1
3.9
4.0
45.5 (45.6)43
51.8 (51.9)43
40.6 (40.7)43
48.9
Dichloromethane
[C3mpyr][NTf2]
[C4mpyr][NTf2]
[P6,6,6,14][NTf2]
[emim][NTf2]
[edmim][NTf2]
[N1,8,8,8][NTf2]
a
48.1 (48.3)32
47.97
53.3 (53.1)35
51.79
49.13
b
Absorbance measured at lmax for MC after 15 h in dark. Calculated from eqn (1). Thermal relaxation rate constant calculated by eqn (2) after
d
60 s of 360 nm light. ET(30) values in parenthesis are from the literature.
energies of the MC isomer can be used to measure micro-
polarity of a solvent on the molecular level.
it does in molecular solvents. The rate at which the thermal
isomerization occurs is strongly solvent-dependent.
The experimental Ke values (Table 1) for the pyrrolidium
based ILs, [C3mpyr]+ and [C4mpyr]+, are quite similar and
represent values expected for polar aprotic molecular solvents
such as acetonitrile. On comparison with the ET(30) scale
pyrrolidium-based ILs appear more polar than acetonitrile.
Ke values for the imidazolium based ILs, [emim]+ and
[edmim]+, correspond to polar protic and aprotic molecular
solvents respectively. The imidazolium-based IL [edmim]+ has
value similar to those of primary alcohols whereas [emim]+
appears more polar (similar to an alcohol-based binary solvent
y = aeꢀkt + b
(2)
First-order rate constants for the thermal isomerization
were determined in this work using Microsoft Excel Solver,
by fitting the absorbance data to eqn (2), where y is the
absorbance value at the lmax, a is the absorbance at t = 0, k
is the rate constant, t is time and b is asymptotic value.45 The
rate constants for MC thermal isomerization in the selected
ILs are tabulated in Table 1.
[C3mpyr]+ and [C4mpyr]+ exhibit similar rate constants to
containing water) on the ET(30) scale. The quaternary tetra-
+
acetonitrile at their respective MC maxima, whereas [emim]+,
alkylammonium-based [N1,8,8,8
+
]
ILs exhibit Ke values typical of polar aprotic
and -phosphonium-based
+
[edmim]+ and [N1,8,8,8
]
exhibit much slower thermal rever-
[P6,6,6,14
]
solvents, while their respective ET(30) values are classed as
aliphatic alcohols. A Figure representing the correlation
between the Ke and ET(30) values in each solvent studied
can be found in the electronic supplementary information
(Fig. S1, ESI).w
sion to BSP-NO2 with rate constants that are broadly similar
to those exhibited by protic molecular solvents, such as
ethanol under similar conditions.44,46 From the Ke values
and lmax positions in Table 1, it would be expected that the
+
[P6,6,6,14
]
IL should exhibit the largest rate constant; this
It has been previously reported that a direct relationship can
be observed between the equilibrium constant Ke and the
solvatochromic visible absorption shift of BSP-NO2; as Ke
decreases the lmax shifts towards longer wavelengths. This
hypothesis proved to be correct, the rate constant for
[P6,6,6,14
+ being 4 times faster than that of [emim]+. However,
comparing [P6,6,6,14
+ with dichloromethane, whose lmax posi-
tion is quite similar, their rate constants differ by nearly an
order of magnitude. These observations raise some interesting
issues about solute–solvent interactions within ILs. These
]
]
trend is also seen in the ILs studied herein: for [emim]+ the
MC lmax = 544 nm and Ke = 4.47 ꢂ 10ꢀ2, whereas [P6,6,6,14
]
+
exhibits an MC lmax = 574 nm and Ke = 1.15 ꢂ 10ꢀ2. Thus, the
MC lmax of the [P6,6,6,14]+-based IL is red-shifted by 20–30 nm
compared with the rest of the ILs, although its ET(30) value
is higher than that of acetonitrile (MC lmax = 554 nm).
+
Dichloromethane has a similar MC lmax to [P6,6,6,14
]
but
its ET(30) value is significantly lower. Solvatochromic shifts of
the MC isomer in ILs are listed in Table 1.
The equilibrium between BSP-NO2 and MC is strongly
displaced upon irradiation with visible ( Z 450 nm) light
towards the BSP-NO2 isomer and when irradiated with UV
light (360 nm) towards the MC isomer. Fig. 3 displays the
resulting spectra of selected ILs after 60 s of UV irradiation.
The effect of visible irradiation is shown for comparison
(spectrum [C3mpyr]+-Vis) to show the significant difference
between the MC and BSP-NO2 spectra. It is well known that,
after removal of UV light, the predominant MC form gener-
ated will thermally isomerize back to its equilibrium state (Ke);
this decay in absorbance should follow first-order kinetics44 as
Fig. 3 [P6,6,6,14]
+, [C3mpyr]+ and [emim]+ [NTf2]ꢀ IL solutions of
BSP-NO2 exposed to 60 s irradiation at 365 nm. [C3mpyr]+ IL
solution of BSP-NO2 exposed to 60 s irradiation of visible light
( Z 450 nm).
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Fig. 4 Optimized structures of (i) MC isomer together with the complexes that can be formed with (ii) [NTf2]ꢀ, (iii) [C3mpyr]+, (iv) [emim]+, (v)
+
[P2,2,2,2
]
at B3LYP/6-31+G(d).
questions are investigated further below by means of ab initio
theoretical calculations.
The molecular orbitals on the MC isomer are shown in Fig. 5.
The first excitation arising from the HOMO has energy of
569 nm; this excitation is allowed by symmetry and is seen in
the visible spectrum.
Ab initio calculations
Molecular orbital calculations for the gas-phase complexes
show that the anion resides approximately 4.3 A from the
positively charged MC nitrogen, hence the anion [NTf2]ꢀ may
only weakly polarize the molecular system. This distance is
comparable with that found in the pure [C1mpyr][NTf2] plastic
Standard ab initio molecular orbital theory and density func-
tional theory (DFT) calculations were carried out using
GAUSSIAN 03.47 The MC isomer together with [emim]+,
[C3mpyr]+, [P6,6,6,14
]
+ and [NTf2]ꢀ were optimized at B3LYP/
6-31+G(d) level of theory. As the optimization for the
+
[P6,6,6,14
]
cation was not feasible, a model cation, [P2,2,2,2]+,
was used instead. It is important to note that these calculations
represent descriptions of the gas-phase molecules and com-
plexes only. However, the ability of gas-phase calculations to
estimate the real n–p* and p– p* electronic transition energies
in organic molecules has been demonstrated previously.48 The
optimized geometries are shown in Fig. 4. The excitation
energies of the MC isomer were computed at CIS(D)/
6-31+G(d,p) level. All molecular orbitals were plotted using
the HF/6-31+G(d,p) electron density.
Discussion
From the spectroscopic results obtained, we see that the ILs
containing the ions [C3mpyr]+ and [C4mpyr]+ together with
[NTf2]ꢀ have no profound effect on the BSP-NO2 spectro-
scopy, only a solvatochromic effect similar to that of the
molecular solvent acetonitrile. For discussion purposes, the
pyrrolidium-based ILs shall be used as a point of reference
when discussing cation effects; any cation that interacts more
strongly than these will have a more profound effect on the
spectroscopic properties of BSP-NO2. The ILs containing the
cations [emim]+ and [P6,6,6,14 + exhibit the greatest difference
]
in MC spectroscopic characteristics and we focus on the
intermolecular interactions that cause these differences. Since
we are observing changes in spectroscopy of the planar MC
isomer, it is important to investigate its excitation energies.
Fig. 5 HOMO and HOMO-4 molecular orbitals of the MC isomer.
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Fig. 6 First-order kinetic plot of the thermal relaxation of the MC
isomer in selected ILs after 60 s UV irradiation. Data normalized at
1.0 a.u.
Fig. 7 Molecular orbital of the [emim]+[MC] complex showing a
through-space interaction between the phenolate oxygen and the
carbon atom (the C2 position) on [emim]+
.
crystal, in which the Nꢄ ꢄ ꢄN separation lies in the range of 4.5
and 6.3 A.49 Thus the anion does not appreciably interact with
the positively charged nitrogen on the MC and is not expected
to influence the spectroscopy beyond a possible solvatochro-
mic effect. As [NTf2]ꢀ is the anion in all of the ILs studied, the
difference in spectroscopy observed is therefore a result of the
different cations. In the case of the [C3mpyr]+ cation, the
pyrrolidinium nitrogen is positioned approximately 3.5 A
away from the phenolate oxygen; in this case the sum of the
van der Waals radii of N and O is 3.07 A and thus this is not a
The [emim]+ cation appears to interact predominantly via
the C2 carbon which resides only 2.92 A (the Cꢄ ꢄ ꢄO distance,
Fig. 4) away from the phenolate oxygen. The sum of the van
der Waals radii of the carbon and oxygen atoms is 3.22 A and
hence, the Cꢄ ꢄ ꢄO separation appears to be considerably short-
er than a normal close contact. This C2 hydrogen is in fact
known to be quite acidic.51 The C2 hydrogen atom sits in
between the carbon and oxygen atoms (CHO bond angle close
to linear) introducing a very short/strong hydrogen bond of
just 1.865 A (H–O distance). As a comparison, a strong
hydrogen bond, e.g. O–Hꢄ ꢄ ꢄO, is slightly longer in length,
around 1.9 A.52 Moreover, such a close proximity of the two
ions results in a through-space orbital interaction, with mole-
cular orbitals on both oxygen and carbon atoms overlapping
(Fig. 7) thus forming a strong interaction between the two
molecules. The possibility of complete proton transfer was
ruled out by comparing the pKa values of phenol (pKa = 10)
and the unsubstituted imidazolium cation (pKa = 23).53 Due
to the through-space interaction, the species formed is likely to
be quite stable and will thus hinder conversion of the MC form
back to the aplanar isomer. To emphasize the effect of the C2
position, we see that the [edmim]+ cation, which bears a
methyl group at the C2 position, exhibits kinetics twice as
fast as the [emim]+ cation (Table 1).
close contact.
+
[P6,6,6,14
]
was also found to behave differently from
[C3mpyr]+; from the spectroscopy it is evident that the
BSP-NO2 isomer is preferred over the MC isomer at equili-
brium. Also, after UV irradiation the MC isomer lmax indi-
cates the molecule to be in a non-polar environment,
furthermore the thermal kinetics is faster than that of
[C3mpyr]+. This can be explained by geometry optimization
on the model phosphonium cation, [P2,2,2,2]+, which shows
that the cation resides 3.73 A from the phenolate oxygen, this
interaction distance being larger by 0.25 A than that for
[C3mpyr]+. The cation does not appreciably interact with
the positively charged nitrogen on the MC and is not expected
to influence the spectroscopy beyond a possible solvatochro-
mic effect. According to the spectroscopic analysis, [emim]+
was found to behave differently than the pyrrolidinium ca-
tions, having a larger Ke value and thermal kinetics more than
three times slower (Fig. 6). Fig. 3 shows the spectrum of the
MC isomer after 60 s UV irradiation; it can be clearly seen that
in the [emim]+ IL it absorbs very strongly after 440 nm
compared to the rest of the ILs. This might be understood
on the basis of the MC isomer’s molecular orbital shown in
Fig. 5. An excitation arising from HOMO-4 (the p orbital on
the phenolate oxygen) has predicted energy of 418 nm; this is
not seen in experiments since the transition is forbidden due to
the symmetry of this orbital, the oscillator strength being zero.
However, should the symmetry of this transition be altered
through interactions with cations and/or polarization by
cations, the transition may be seen in the absorption spectrum,
as is the case for transition metal ions.50 Thus this transition
may be responsible for the 440 nm band observed, if an
interaction with the phenolate oxygen and the cation are
sufficiently strong.
The through-space interaction will have a polarizing effect
on the MC moeity, disrupting the symmetry of the p orbital on
the phenolate and allowing the p–p* transition of the MC at
calculated excitation energy of 418 nm. This accords with the
spectroscopic results, accounting for absorption at 440 nm and
thus supports the hypothesis that [emim]+ forms a stable
complex with MC.
Conclusions
To our knowledge this is the first demonstration of photo-
chromic behavior of nitrobenzospiropyran in the mentioned
ionic liquid solvents and that the kinetics and thermodynamics
of the process are sensitive to the nature of the cation. It was
also observed that the imidazolium cation can form a through-
space orbital interaction rather than just electrostatic interac-
tions, thus preventing the MC conversion back to the aplanar
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isomer. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that, in princi-
ple, we can optically switch the cation binding to the mero-
cyanine on/off. We regard these preliminary results as pointing
the way towards more sophisticated materials capable of
switching reversibly between two distinct forms, and simulta-
neously providing a number of transduction modes for gath-
ering information about the molecular environment in the
immediate vicinity of the binding site and its surrounding
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Acknowledgements
RB wishes to thank Science Foundation Ireland for grant
support for this research under the Adaptive Information
Cluster Award (SFI 03/IN3/1361). EII gratefully acknowl-
edges generous allocations of the computing time at the
National Facility of the Australian Partnership for Advanced
Computing.
36 K. Iwata, M. Kakita and H.-O. Hamaguchi, J. Phys. Chem. B,
2007, 111, 4914–4919.
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