Full text of DOI:10.1016/S0953-5438(00)00052-7

E.A. Onibere et al. / Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
497
Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
www.elsevier.com/locate/intcom
Human–computer interface design issues for a
multi-cultural and multi-lingual English speaking
country — Botswana
*
E.A. Onibere, S. Morgan , E.M. Busang, D. Mpoeleng
Department of Computer Science, University of Botswana, Private Bag 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
Received 10 January 2000; revised 8 August 2000; accepted 19 September 2000
Abstract
This paper reports on research carried out to determine whether a localised interface is preferred
by users in a multi-cultural and multi-lingual country where a non-local language is nationally used,.
We attempted to discover whether local symbols are more acceptable to users as icons and also
whether the current phrases used in menus and icon descriptions are clearly understood by the
various communities.
A survey was conducted nation-wide among computer end-users in Botswana. The results indicate
an overwhelming desire from users for a localised interface. However, there appears to be little need
for localised icons and no agreement as to which language to use for text-based interfaces. ᭧ 2001
Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Usability; Culture; Localised interface; Interface design
1
. Introduction
The concept of personal computing has been pursued seriously since the late 1970s.
However, the usage became widespread when the Personal Computer (PC) became more
available and affordable. The ease of use increased with the introduction of graphical user
interfaces (GUIs). However, much of the effort invested, was focussed in developing
software that could be accommodated by the limited computer hardware available.
Such limitations included slow processing power and low memory and storage capabilities
(Onibere, 1981, 1986).
At this time both hardware and software were mostly produced in the United States. In
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: ϩ267-355-2129; fax: ϩ267-355-2784.
E-mail address: morgans@mopipi.ub.bw (S. Morgan).
0
953-5438/00/$ - see front matter ᭧ 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0953-5438(00)00052-7

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Fig. 1. English language interface for a multi-cultural and multi-lingual community.
the recent past, 75% of installed packaged software world-wide was produced in the
United States (Miller, 1994) and oriented towards western industrialised nations. The
situation is now changing since — for the most part — Asian countries have emerged
as serious competitors to western industrialised nations in an increasing global economy.
In connection with this development, the market for computer products has become
increasingly international too. International sales make up half the revenues for the top
100 US software companies (Miller, 1994). Because of the increased competition between
software companies, the usability of a software product is becoming ever more important,
relative to its functionality. With the overabundance of software products on the market
that are similar in functionality, the usability of an application may indeed be the decisive
factor in consumers choosing one product over another. This is why efforts are being made
to improve on the design of user interface (Maguire, 1999; Magnus Lif, 1999).
The cultural background of the user has a role to play. According to Berner (1998),
“
because every system…reflects the cultural background of the system designer…who
developed it,…aspects of usability are prone to be influenced by the users cultural back-
ground in relation to the system”. Cross-cultural issues have continued to be addressed
(Griffith and Olin, 1998). Culture can be defined in a simple form as the behaviour typical
of a group or class (of people) (Yeo, 1996). However, in a more complex form, culture can
be defined as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of
one human group from another (El-Shinnawy and Vinze, 1997). Averaging these two,
Portigal (1997) defines culture as the organising behaviour and shared beliefs that define a
group. We shall adopt this last definition of culture.
Ito and Nakakoyi (1996) show how culture can affect human–computer interaction.
They divided human–computer interaction into two modes: listening mode in which
people are presented with a computer’s reactions, and speaking mode in which people
give instructions to a computer system. Each of these modes is again divided into three
phases, namely: perception, semantic association and logical reasoning. They show that
logical reasoning followed by semantic association are greatly affected by culture.
Fernandes (1995) concluded that iconic representations are problematic among different
cultures. However, from what is happening in the computing industry, iconic representa-
tions will be with us for some time. This is buttressed by the fact that research is still being

E.A. Onibere et al. / Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
499
carried out for easier generation of icons (Gennaro Costalgliola et al., 1999). Usability
problems that can arise from cultural differences are mainly representational variations
between cultures. Such variations can be found in colour, icons, character set, pictures,
symbols, phrases/jargons, time format and abbreviations. These may vary between
cultures due to factors such as language, taste and religion.
2. Aims and objectives
There are countries where the English language is used as the official language, but have
their own local languages and varying cultures within the same country. Such countries are
likely to have been colonised by the British. They might have also imbibed some of the
culture of those who colonised them. The conceptual view of this situation is shown in
Fig. 1 (adapted from Bourges-Waldegg and Scrivener (1998)).
The interface of the software being used in such communities is in the English language.
In the environment under consideration which is depicted by Fig. 1, the English language
is taught from primary school. Users therefore have no problems with character set, time
format (if day/month/year is used), etc. As shown in Fig. 2, the effect of colour is
comparatively small. We shall therefore not consider it and limit our investigations to
commonly used phrases/jargon and icons.
The listening mode is greatly affected by culture. This is shown in Fig. 2 (adapted from
Ito and Nakakoyi (1996)). As stated earlier, phases of understanding can be expanded to
Fig. 2. Cultural impact in the listening mode.

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perception, semantic association, and logical reasoning. Here we shall concentrate on the
semantic association between representations and their underlying concepts. This is
influenced by the choice of language, standards used and metaphors chosen and how
they relate to phrases/jargon and icons used in the interface (Ito and Nakakoyi, 1996).
Our aim is to determine the effect of culture on the understanding of commonly used
phrases/jargon and icons in such a multi-lingual and multi-cultural society. Our findings
will obviously help in the design of a more usable interface in such a multi-cultural
environment. We hope to answer questions such as:
•
•
•
are local symbols more acceptable to users as icons?
do users understand clearly the phrases/jargon currently commonly used?
would users prefer a localised interface?
We shall use Botswana as an example of an English speaking country with many local
cultures and languages (there are in excess of 14 ethnic groups). The two official languages
of Botswana are Setswana and English, both being taught throughout school years.
3
. Methodology
Software engineering investigations can be carried out in three ways namely:
(
(
(
i) experimentations, which is research in a small scale in a controlled environment.
ii) case studies, which is research in the typical.
iii) surveys, for research in the large.
Since our investigations were to be nation-wide so as to cover all local languages, people
with different levels of education and working in different organisations, we decided to use
the option of a survey. A team of eight of us made up of four researchers and four research
assistants mostly from the Department of Computer Science, University of Botswana,
carried out a survey of 324 end-users over a two-month period in June/July 1999. The
survey took the form of structured interviews conducted in the workplace and recorded
onto a questionnaire (in English) by the interviewer. This approach was adopted to ensure
an adequate and consistent response. Each interview lasted approximately 45 min. Almost
1
all interviewers were Batswana (approximately 3% of interviews were conducted by a
non-Motswana).
The survey attempted to capture both quantitative and qualitative data covering
•
•
•
•
•
the respondents themselves;
their computer use (hardware, software, tasks);
their computer training;
the user support mechanisms available to them;
their preferred interface style and features.
1
A Botswana citizen is a Motswana (plural, Batswana).

E.A. Onibere et al. / Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
501
Fig. 3. Breakdown of respondents by location.
3
.1. The process
The research team is multinational and multicultural, consisting of two Batswana, one
Nigerian and one British National. Design of the questionnaire and survey sample
involved the whole team. Four Batswana research assistants with computing experience
(they are Computer Science undergraduates with an interest in Human–computer Inter-
action) were employed to conduct the interviews. This ensured that the respondents under-
stood the questions and would be more open to discuss their opinions (in Setswana if they
so wished). The research assistants also provided input into the icon design aspect of the
questionnaire. This ensured a strong local input to the cultural aspects investigated in the
survey. Target organisations were identified by the team and formally approached in
writing (to the Head of the organisation/department). The organisations themselves then
identified who they felt were suitable typical end-users.
3
.2. The sample group
An attempt was made to obtain input from a cross-section of the Botswana community.
The following categories were therefore considered when selecting respondents:
Gender: approximately 50% split by gender were selected.
Urban/Rural location: ten centres were selected to cover the diverse groups across the
country. These were selected based on population spread, rural versus urban mix and
cultural spread. Each centre was selected as a focal point for their area. Fig. 3 shows
the breakdown.
Ethnic group: respondents were asked to identify the town they grew up. This was used
2
as an indicator of their likely ethnic group. By comparing the data received with a list of
locations of main ethnic concentrations, it was possible to approximate that all ethnic
2
There are 14 plus main ethnic groups in Botswana, each traditionally based in a particular part of the country.
While it was felt contentious to ask respondents outright which group they belonged to, their main home town
could be used to estimate their likely ethnic group.

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Fig. 4. Breakdown of respondents by type of organisation.
groups were covered in the sample. All those interviewed were from one ethnic group or
another within Botswana and can speak Setswana.
Age: although as expected the vast majority (75%) of the sample fell in the age scale of
26–45 years, 19% of the sample were under 26 years and the remainder over 46 years.
Education level: the sample attempted to include users of all educational backgrounds.
A fairly even spread was obtained (from Junior Secondary level through to Postgraduate)
with a small percentage (less than 2%) of respondents only having Primary level educa-
tion. The subject specialisms of graduates and postgraduates indicated a wide spectrum
(some 66 subject areas identified).
Organisation: the sample covered users spread across private and public sectors, NGOs,
education, and charities. This ensured that the experience and expectations of computer
users from all sectors were represented. Fig. 4 shows details (note: “Other” encompasses
charities, NGOs, community groups, etc).
Main area of work: as stated above, the organisations themselves identified the respon-
dents who they felt were typical computer users. It was important to analyse the sample in
terms of the functional role of the respondents to ensure adequate input from different
types of users. Fig. 5 gives such a breakdown. As can be seen a reasonable spread of user
groups was achieved.
3.3. Questionnaire design
A questionnaire to capture the desired data was designed by the research team. This
consisted of 28 closed questions divided into four sections covering: (i) Background
Information (about the respondent); (ii) Computer Use; (iii) Training and Support; and
(iv) Interface Issues. Question formats for quantitative data were largely a mix of multiple
choice and true/false answers. For capturing qualitative data, questions used ranked order
lists, Lickert Scale forms, and multiple choice. Opportunity was also provided at the end
for any additional comments.
Fig. 5. Breakdown of respondents by main role in work.

E.A. Onibere et al. / Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
503
The section covering Interface Issues is our main focus here. Essentially, this
section was designed to capture data covering four User Interface categories. The
nature of this data is qualitative since it draws on the user’s subjective views and under-
standing.
Multiple choice questions asked the respondent for their current preferred style
of interface. Rather than using descriptive terms (and HCI jargon) which may be confusing
to the respondent, this was asked in the context of a typical task (the task chosen was
“
Saving some data”).
Two further sets of questions were designed to determine the respondent’s semantic
association with typical interface objects. The first focused on text-based commands.
Seven typical Windows tasks were selected. For each task, the respondent was presented
with a one-word identifier for the activity (the standard Microsoft Windows name)
together with a description of its meaning. They were asked to select from a list of optional
3
text-based commands which one they felt best represented that activity. The second
question relating to semantic association followed similar lines but focused on iconic
representations instead of text-based commands and listed eleven activities. The design
of the options offered for each activity in both of these questions was heavily influenced by
the Batswana members of the research team (and the research assistants), who suggested
and rejected options based on the local culture. Two objects in particular in the iconic
representation question contained images particular to Botswana in style. In all option lists
for both questions, the standard Microsoft Windows choice was included. (Samples can be
found in Appendix A.)
The fourth User Interface category concerned user views on localised interfaces. Using
a Lickert Scale format, the respondent was asked whether they would like to use a
localised interface (i.e. using a local language and/or local images). A further question
specifically asked views about using the Setswana language instead of English when
communicating using text based commands. Setswana is the official language of Botswana
though there are several regional languages spoken.
After initial design, the questionnaire was piloted using a small sample of respondents
based at the University. A few minor changes were made.
4
. Analysis
After completion of the survey, all questionnaire data was coded for analysis using spss.
Frequency tables were produced for all questions. A series of cross tabulations were also
produced to address the questions posed in Section 2. Specifically, these analysed the data
in terms of the categories listed in Section 3 above. These tables of data were then visually
analysed by the research team and discussed.
In addition, research assistants went through a debriefing session (after interviews were
completed) where their own general impressions were noted and discussed.
3
Each menu of options included “Other” where they were asked to suggest their own command if they so
wished.

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Fig. 6. Breakdown of main platform used.
5
. Results
Some general points on computer usage are worth noting here first.
.1. Computing experience
5
By far the most common platform in use among our sample is a PC with GUI. Fig. 6
shows the breakdown in detail. This indicates that 80% of respondents are using a
Microsoft Windows interface. Even when asked what previous platforms have been
used, only 10% reported MS DOS — all other respondents, either using another GUI
or no other platform. This is further supported by the fact that more than 70% of
respondents have been using computers regularly in their work for less than four years.
Of the software used, MSOffice is the popular choice with 72% of all respondents using
Word, 59% using Excel and 26% using Access. Only 37% of respondents use the Internet
and 38% use electronic mail.
5
.2. User training
While 95% of respondents feel that computer training is necessary in order to effectively
do their job, and some 84% reported they have received training of some sort, a breakdown
Fig. 7. Training received.

E.A. Onibere et al. / Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
505
of the nature of that training indicates a reliance on non-formal training and previous
education — see Fig. 7.
These results show that most users have only experienced a GUI, the vast majority using
Microsoft Office. They recognise the importance of training in computer use yet have
relied largely on colleagues and their formal education programs as the main source of
training.
We will now look at the results concerning Interface issues.
5.3. Preferred style of interface
By far the most popular style of interaction appears to be using menus (57% of respon-
dents) with ease of use cited as the reason by most of those. Using icons came second but is
only favoured by 21% of respondents. This is rather surprising since HCI designers tend to
prefer iconic representations.
5
.4. Semantic association of text-based commands
Fig. 8 shows a summary of the results obtained for the seven objects listed in the
question based on textual commands. The figure only shows the percentage of respondents
who selected the “correct” or standard default command name.
Two of the terms used here, namely “Recycle Bin” and “Home Page” require some
explanation since their meanings may not be obvious. Recycle Bin is where we keep files
which we hope to finally delete from the computer. Such files can, however, be recalled if
need be. On the other hand, Homepage stands for the first page of a website from where a
user can gain access to all the items or information in the website.
Closer analysis of these results, shows some interesting points. The Refresh command
shows a wide spread of choices, indicating a distinct lack of consensus as to its semantic
interpretation. The favourite choice among women, for instance, is Restart (26%) while
among men it is Redo (also 26%), neither of which is the standard default command name.
Factors such as the platform used by the respondent, the type of organisation where they
work, or even the fact that they have received training appear to make little difference. It
seems this command is not well understood by all users.
Fig. 8. Text-based commands.

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Fig. 9. Icon-based commands. Here we can see that only one iconic representation (Undo) achieved more than
60% confirmation from respondents.
The lack of significant consensus for Homepage (also spread across all options
presented) is perhaps a reflection of the low Internet experience of most users.
5
.5. Semantic association of icon-based commands
Analysis of the preferred icon representations for the eleven objects listed under the
question addressing icons seems to indicate that most users choose either the default (or
standard Microsoft Windows) iconic representation or a one containing textual cues.
Again a summary of the results obtained for the objects in this question is shown in
Fig. 9. As before, the percentage of respondents who selected the standard (default)
representation is shown. Also shown are details of options chosen which contained textual
cues, and for two of the activities (Homepage and Open) the results obtained for the
“
localised” option.
Fig. 10. Views on desirability of a localised interface and the use of Setswana.

E.A. Onibere et al. / Interacting with Computers 13 (2001) 497–512
507
Other
Private
Yes
Neutral
No
Univ
Educ
Local Gov
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Fig. 11. Views on a localised interface by organisation.
These results indicate that localised icons are not necessarily popular with users. A
closer analysis of the data indicates that generally gender makes no distinction other than
for Homepage, where the localised icon (of a traditional Botswana house) was the most
popular choice among women (52%). On comparing these results with the same objects in
the text-based commands, respondents were generally less likely to pick the default icon if
there was an alternative containing a textual cue. Interestingly, the Refresh icon appears
not to have the same confusion as the text-based command (58% selecting the default icon
as against 22% selecting the default text command). The iconic options presented for
Refresh did not include any textual clues.
5
.6. User views on localised interfaces
The results appear to indicate quite a contradiction over this issue. While 57% of
respondents actively welcome a localised interface for Botswana, only 25% would like
to use Setswana words for commands. Fig. 10 illustrates the strength of feeling on this
issue.
On further analysis we find that while gender appears to have little or no impact on these
views, other factors do. A breakdown by organisation type indicates that the private sector
Other
Private
Univ
Educ
Local Gov
0
%
50%
100%
Fig. 12. Views on use of Setswana words by organisation.

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organisations are less supportive of a localised interface of any kind, as indicated in Figs.
11 and 12.
Analysis among ethnic groups and locations also indicate that the more rural centres
welcome a localised interface to a greater extent than the urban capital and in terms of
using Setswana in particular, groups are more polarised in their views than other. For
instance, respondents originating from the Francistown area appear more strongly against
using Setswana than say those from Maun. The reason may be that in Francistown there is
a language other than Setswana that is spoken by a large percent of the population,
whereas in Maun no single alternative to Setswana is common to much of the population.
Further research is required to obtain a deeper analysis of these findings.
6. Discussion
The findings regarding Interface Issues have revealed that the preferred style of inter-
action across users is using menus rather than buttons or hot keys. The fact that almost all
users have used the technology for less than four years and have “grown up” with a GUI
(Microsoft Windows, in fact) interface may lead one to expect that they would be more
comfortable with using icons than text based menus. However, the findings concerning
semantic association appears to indicate that users do not attach much semantic meaning
to commonly used icons. They almost always seek cues to the icon’s meaning via textual
indicators. What can be the reasons for this language-based preference rather than to a
graphical representation? Perhaps this is a cultural aspect of the Botswana community. As
stated, these users have not had the history of familiarisation with common computing
ideas and representations that users in other environments have had. For instance, the
standard icon for Save is a graphic of a floppy disk — rather outdated in the present
technological climate. In the west even novice computer users experience a very graphical
environment in other aspects of life. Road signs, maps, interfaces to appliances are all rich
in symbolic graphical representations. In the Botswana environment, technological devel-
opment is relatively new to most communities and many individuals have not rehearsed
their use to a great extent. This is an area to be investigated further.
The issue of the desirability of a localised interface has shown to be complex. The “loud
voice” in favour of such an interface cannot go unnoticed, particularly from the more rural
areas where perhaps English is not used to the same extent as in the urban centres.
However, the poor response to localised icons used in the survey appears to contradict
this view. One theory has been suggested that culturally in Botswana there is a clear
distinction between the world of work and home life. (Perhaps this is reinforced by the
point made above concerning the short history of exposure to technology experienced by
most Batswana.) Inclusion of icons reflecting village culture therefore can appear
unnatural and out of place in the work environment and fail in their intended
4
semantic association. What then is understood by users by the term “localised interface”?
4
According to the criteria for “good” icon design suggested by Preece et al. (1994), semantic association may
be poor for the HOME icon due to irrelevant context.

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509
What aspects of Botswana life can lend themselves to metaphorical uses for interface
design?
If the community prefers (or relies heavily on) language based interfaces, then the
choice of language must be an important one. English is used in business in the country;
Setswana is the official language, though several different languages are used by the
population as a whole. The survey highlighted strong feelings on the issue of the choice
of language. The question in the survey regarding using Setswana words was perhaps
ambiguously worded. In retrospect it may have been better to ask for views on using the
respondent’s mother language instead of specifically naming Setswana since this issue
proved to be contentious exposing local ethnic tensions. Again further investigation is
required.
7
. Conclusions
It has been shown that the user community in Botswana is more disposed to the use of
menus and language-based interfaces. This is buttressed by the fact that they understand
text-based commands better than icons.
It is also clear that locally motivated icons are not better understood or liked by the
community who seem to prefer the currently used (default) icons. This is being associated
with the idea that, at the place of work, users tune themselves to the work environment,
where the context of “home” is not relevant. Although there is an overwhelming agree-
ment on the desirability of a “local” interface, there is no agreement as to which local
language to use. Even the nationally adopted local language is not acceptable to most
users.
Although users have different local languages and cultures, the learning of the English
language and its use in everyday life, have to a large extent subdued their cultural differ-
ences. There is a common platform for expression in their offices. The interpretation of
icons used in interfaces is perhaps taken as part of learning how to use the new technology:
the use of locally oriented icons does not come in. This corresponds with the ideas
put forward by Searle (1995) that persons from cultures A and B may understand a
representation in the same or similar ways if they both share context C. If we regard
the English language and culture as our context C, this will obviously be common to all
users.
Our sample included a wide range of users, including novices. However, we did not
include those who have never used a computer at all. We have concentrated on people who
have been using computers to know their disposition towards the current interfaces. A
similar survey will need to be conducted for non-computer-users if we wish to determine
the effect of rehearsed computer use has on users’ views.
In conclusion, it appears from our findings that there is no need for localised icons.
Perhaps as IT use expands beyond the office, more local culturally relevant contexts will
emerge to form the basis of icon design. More work needs to be done to establish whether
users prefer to use their different local languages for text-based interfaces rather than any
one particular local language. It would also be interesting to establish whether these
findings transfer to other multi-cultural and multi-lingual English-speaking countries,

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since it may depend on how much the English (or American) culture has eroded the local
cultures.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the University of Botswana.
Appendix A. Samples from the questionnaire
A.1. Semantic association of text-based commands
Question 26 was designed to determine how much the respondents associated command
names with various common tasks. Seven activities were listed. Below shows a sample
from this question:
26. In the table below, for each object, indicate which of the commands offered best
represents the activity described:
Object
Definition
Commands
tick one
Homepage
In a Website, the first page
that is opened is referred to
as the homepage
Start page
Home page
Main page
First page
Other
Specify
Undo
To cancel out the last task
performed.
Undo
Cancel
Restreat a step
Reverse
Destroy last step
Other
Specify
Refresh
To repeat the last
Repeat
Refresh
Restart
Try again
Redo
operation carried out. This
becomes necessary when
the last operation is not
yielding the full results
expected.
Other
Specify

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511
A.2. Semantic association of icon-based commands
Question 27 was designed to determine how much the respondents associated icons with
various common tasks. Eleven activities were listed. Below shows a sample from this
question:
27. Based on your experience, for each of the following commands indicate which of
the icons offered you feel best represents the activity described (if you don’t know then
make a guess based on your interpretation of the options given):
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