Uncovering the mechanism of the Ag(I)/persulfate-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of arylboronic acids and heteroarenes

Article abstract of DOI:10.1021/ja400712g

The catalytic cross-coupling of arylboronic acids with pyridines through single-electron oxidation provides efficient access to substituted heterocycles. Despite the importance of this reaction, very little is known about its mechanism, and as a consequence, it is unclear whether the full scope of the transformation has been realized. Here we present kinetic and spectroscopic evidence showing a high degree of complexity in the reaction system. The mechanism derived from these studies shows the activation of Ag(I) for reduction of persulfate and an off-cycle protodeboronation by the pyridine substrate. These results provide key mechanistic insights that enable control of the off-cycle process, thus providing higher efficiency and yield.

Full text of DOI:10.1021/ja400712g

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Communication
Uncovering the Mechanism of the Ag(I)/Persulfate-Catalyzed
Cross- Coupling Reaction of Arylboronic Acids and Heteroarenes
Niki R. Patel, and Robert A Flowers
J. Am. Chem. Soc., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/ja400712g • Publication Date (Web): 11 Mar 2013
Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on March 12, 2013
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Uncovering the Mechanism of the Ag(I)/Persulfate-Catalyzed Cross-
Coupling Reaction of Arylboronic Acids and Heteroarenes
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Niki R. Patel and Robert A. Flowers, II*
Department of Chemistry, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, United States
Supporting Information Placeholder
understood provides a more effective approach to this cata-
lytic system, thus extending its utility.
ABSTRACT: The catalytic cross-coupling of arylboronic
acids with pyridines through single electron oxidation pro-
vides efficient access to substituted heterocycles. Although
important, there is very little known about the mechanism of
the reaction and as a consequence, it is unclear if the full
scope of the transformation has been realized. In this com-
munication we present kinetic and spectroscopic evidence
showing a high degree of complexity in the reaction system.
The mechanism derived from these studies shows the activa-
tion of Ag(I) for reduction of persulfate and an off-cycle pro-
todeboronation by pyridine substrate. These results provide
key mechanistic insights that enable control of the off-cycle
process thus providing higher efficiency and yield.
To study the system, the reaction of 4-trifluoromethyl pyri-
dine (1, 1 mmol) and p-tolylboronic acid (2, 1.5 mmol) con-
taining 20 mol% AgNO3 (with respect to 1), potassium per-
sulfate (3 mmol) and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA, 1 mmol) in a
1:1 solution of dichloromethane (DCM) and water was exam-
ined. Protonation of pyridine by TFA produces a better
radicophile and enhances selectivity of the 2-position.6 To
maintain controlled reaction conditions, solvents were de-
gassed and the reaction was carried out under an atmosphere
of argon as shown in Scheme 1. The exclusion of air from the
reaction resulted in a 76% isolated yield, compared to the
81% yield reported by Baran and coworkers, which required a
second addition of K2S2O8 and AgNO3.4
Scheme 1. Cross-coupling reaction of electron-
deficient pyridine with arylboronic acid
Catalytic oxidations that proceed through single electron
transfer are becoming one of the most important approaches
for the formation of C-C bonds in molecules of pharmaceuti-
cal and biological importance.1 A great deal of recent effort
has focused on two general methods: 1) visible light photore-
dox catalysis2 and 2) metal-catalyzed oxidations.3 In both
approaches, the use of a terminal oxidant is often required.
In addition, the use of readily available starting materials
employed in these reactions can provide a wide range of re-
lated structures important for screening in medicinal chem-
istry and for the construction of building blocks important in
materials chemistry. In this vein, the recent work of Baran
on the Ag(I)/persulfate cross-coupling of arylboronic acids
with electron deficient pyridines is of fundamental im-
portance.4 The approach developed by Baran overcomes
several of the shortcomings of the traditional Minisci reac-
tion,5 most importantly the addition of aryl radicals to an
aromatic heterocycle. In addition, the method is procedural-
ly elegant and has broad substrate scope. Although the reac-
tion provides access to a variety of substituted heteroarenes,
a second addition of Ag catalyst and stoichiometric oxidant
are often required. Given the importance of this bond-
forming reaction, it is our supposition that a detailed mecha-
nistic study of the system would facilitate a more efficient
approach to reaction design using the Ag(I)/persulfate cata-
lytic system. Herein, we present mechanistic data defining
the role of the individual components in the reaction that
reveal a great degree of mechanistic complexity, that once
Additionally, toluene was obtained as a side product in
roughly 30% yield (with respect to 2). Removal of oxygen and
the subsequent increased yield is consistent with the previ-
ously proposed free-radical mechanism.4 These higher-
yielding conditions were suitable for thorough mechanistic
studies.
Kinetic studies were performed in which either the loss of
starting material (1) or growth of product was followed over
time via gas chromatography (GC). A “same excess” experi-
ment was initiated to determine the stability of catalytic sil-
ver nitrate during the course of the reaction7 using the condi-
tions contained in Table 1. If total catalyst concentration re-
mains constant during the course of the reaction, the rates of
both reactions would be identical. When rate profiles of
Table 1. “Same excess” experiment reaction condi-
tions
1
2
(M)
excess K2S2O8 excess AgNO3
(M) (M) (M) (M)
Run
(M)
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conditions (Figure 3). Downfield shifts of aromatic protons
1-100%
2-50%
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.050
0.050
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.20
0.020
0.020
1
2
3
4
5
6
were observed upon addition of TFA (Figure 3b) or AgNO3
(Figure 3d) to 1 in D2O. Upon addition of TFA and AgNO3 to
1 (Figure 3c), a slight upfield shift of aromatic protons is ob-
served compared to the mixture of 1 and TFA (Figure 3b).
0.050
Runs 1 and 2 are compared, the decays do not overlay, con-
sistent with a decrease in [AgNO3] during the course of the
reaction (Figure 1).
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4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
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Run 1 (100%)
Run 2 (50%)
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
[1] (M)
Figure 2. Rate vs. [1] for different excess experiments for 2.
Run 3 was performed by increasing [2] to 0.30 M and keeping
concentrations of all other reactants the same as in Run 2.
Figure 1. Rate vs. [1] for same excess experiments.
Table 2. Observed Rate Orders of Substrates in Cross-
Coupling Reaction of 1 and 2
To determine the rate orders of each of the substrates in the
reaction “different excess” experiments were performed. The
reaction was approximately first order in 1 and AgNO3. Ini-
tial experiments showed that the rate order of K2S2O8 was
zero. Given the low solubility of K2S2O8 it is possible that its
true rate order could be masked by phase transfer. To exam-
ine this physical process, the more soluble Na2S2O8 was em-
ployed in the reaction and a rate order of approximately 1
was observed. Surprisingly, an increase in the initial concen-
tration of 2 resulted in an overall decrease in reaction rate
(Figure 2). The order of 2 was determined through normali-
zation of –d[1]/dt, defined by eq 1
1
2
K2S2O8
0*
AgNO3
1
1
-0.5
o
*Due to low solubility of K2S2O8 (4.72 g/100 ml at 20 C)10;
when using Na2S2O8 (54.6 g/100mL), rate order shown to be
approximately 1.
The lack of overlay of the spectra is consistent with equilibri-
um complexation between 1 and Ag(I) under reaction condi-
tions.
![!]
!"
[!]!
−
= !!"#[!]
(1)
where x is the order of 2. Overlay of the two reaction profiles
is observed when x = -0.5, indicative of an inverse half order
for 2 (Figure 2, inset).
The rate orders for all reaction components are shown in
Table 2. The rate orders of persulfate and AgNO3 are con-
sistent with a process where catalytic Ag(I) is oxidized by
persulfate. The orders obtained for 1 and 2 are surprising. If
the reaction is indeed proceeding through initial oxidation of
2 followed by addition to 1, the first order observed for 1
compared to the inverse half order for 2 suggests a more
complicated process.
Figure 3. 1H NMR spectra of 1 with additives
The formation of silver-pyridine complexes is well-
established in the literature.8 In addition, there is literature
precedence describing the activation of Ag(I) by amines to-
ward oxidation by persulfate.9 Bonchev and Aleksiev showed
that the addition of suitable nitrogen-containing neutral
ligands, such as phenanthroline, ethylenediamine, and pyri-
dine, to Ag(I)/persulfate reactions resulted in the accelera-
tion in the oxidation of Ag(I) to Ag(II).9 This activating ef-
fect was attributed to a lowering of the Ag(II)/Ag(I) couple.
With some insight into the possible role of 1 we next focused
on the mechanistic role of 2. An inverse rate order is typical-
ly indicative of two possible scenarios: 1) The presence of the
reaction component shifts an equilibrium, decreasing the
concentration of the intermediate prior to a rate determining
step, or 2) the component behaves as an antagonist acting
outside the desired pathway that leads to product. Given the
long history of the Ag(I)/persulfate oxidation system, it is
instructive to examine the literature carefully for possible
To investigate the possible interaction between 1 and AgNO3,
1H NMR studies were carried out in D2O to mimic reaction
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precedent to explain the unusual observations obtained from
terious to reaction progress. Furthermore, addition of a rea-
1
2
3
4
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8
the kinetic studies. Studies on the interaction between Ag-
NO3 and boronic acids in ammoniacal solution dates back to
the 1880s.11 These early investigations showed that while
alkyl boronic acids reduce Ag(I) through an intermediate Ag-
alkyl, aromatic boronic acids form an insoluble salt. Heating
of this salt led to hydrolytic cleavage producing an arene,
boric acid and Ag2O.11
gent capable of preventing formation of catalytically inactive
Ag(I) to its active form should be beneficial to reaction pro-
gress (See Supporting Information). To test this supposition,
a reaction was initiated using 0.5 M HNO3 to prevent the
formation of catalytically inactive Ag(I).11c Employing these
modified conditions enabled the reduction of catalyst and
oxidant loading to 10 mol% AgNO3 and 2 equiv of persulfate,
respectively in a 1:1 solution of DCM and water under Ar at-
mosphere overnight, leading to an isolated yield of 90%.
Additionally, toluene side-product formation was reduced to
9% (with respect to 2).
To examine the Ag(I)-initiated hydrolysis under reaction
conditions, stoichiometric quantities of 2 and AgNO3 were
stirred in 1:1 DCM:H2O solution. After approximately five
minutes, the formation of a gray/silver colored precipitate
was observed consistent with silver oxide described in previ-
ous studies. The formation of toluene as a by-product of this
reaction was confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spec-
trometry (GC-MS). To further probe the system, two reac-
tions were carried out. The first involved reacting 1.5 mmol of
2 with 1.0 mmol AgNO3 in 1:1 DCM:H2O solution. A second
reaction was run under the same conditions with 3.0 mmol
of 1. Approximately 0.84 mmol of toluene formed when 1 was
included in the reaction mixture, compared to 0.23 mmol of
toluene formed when 1 was excluded, a finding consistent
with inhibition of AgNO3 and consumption of 2 outside of
the desired reaction pathway. The increase in toluene for-
mation in the presence of 1 is also consistent with interaction
between 1 and AgNO3 and the classic studies on the reaction
of AgNO3 and boronic acids in ammoniacal solutions.8,11
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Equipped with a rate expression for the system, the question
that still remains unanswered is: which species is oxidizing
·-
the boronic acid, the Ag(II) or SO4
? The classic work of
Kochi and others has shown that metastable Ag(II) is respon-
sible for decarboxylation of carboxylic acids to produce radi-
cals by Ag(I)/persulfate.12 This work was applied by Minisci
and coworkers, in which the alkyl radical, generated from
decarboxylation of an acid adds to a heteroarene to form
substituted heterocycles.5 In the present reaction, Baran
proposed that persulfate radical anion addition to the aryl
boronic acid was responsible for intermediate aryl radical
formation.4
To test the question posed above, we first examined the use
of potassium 4-methylphenyl trifluoroborate (4) in place of 2.
The reaction was performed under the unoptimized condi-
tions shown in Scheme 1 and provided a 60% isolated yield of
3. Aryl trifluoroborates are known to hydrolyze under basic
conditions.13 The stability of 4 under reaction conditions was
examined in aqueous acidic media by monitoring the 11B
NMR spectrum as described by Lloyd-Jones.13 No hydrolysis
of 4 to 2 was observed. Next, the reaction with 2 was carried
out in the presence of allyl acetate, a well-known radical trap
Based on the observed kinetic and spectroscopic data, the
proposed reaction mechanism involves: i) a pre-equilibrium
step in which 1 and Ag(I) form a complex, ii) the reduction of
2-
S2O8 by the Ag(I)-1 complex, which is the rate-determining
step, and iii) an off-cycle step involving protodeboronation of
2 accelerated by the Ag(I)-1 complex (Scheme 2).
Scheme 2. Mechanism of Ag(I)/Persulfate-Catalysis in
Coupling of Arylboronic acid and Electron-deficient
Pyridine
for SO4 .
·- 14 If SO4·- is acting as the oxidizing agent in the reac-
tion, the addition of allyl acetate would be deleterious to
reaction progress. Interestingly, addition of 6 equiv of allyl
acetate had no impact on yield and the rate of reaction in-
creased slightly. This observation suggests that by decreas-
·-
ing the concentration of SO4 through capture by allyl ace-
tate, the reaction is being driven forward toward the for-
mation of product, presumably through the reduction of
2-
S2O8 by Ag(I) producing Ag(II). These additional experi-
ments show that 4 is not hydrolyzed (i.e. remains quater-
nized) under reaction conditions, and reactions with 2 pro-
Assuming steady state approximation for the Ag(I)-1 com-
plex, and accounting for all the states of Ag(I), the rate of
reaction can be expressed as eq 2 (for full derivation refer to
·-
ceed even when SO4 is sequestered by allyl acetate. As a
consequence, these experiments are consistent with a pro-
cess where the oxidation proceeds through a Ag(II)-mediated
process. Since quaternized boron is more susceptible to sin-
gle electron oxidation,15 we propose that water (solvent) or
pyridine interacts with the aryl boronic acid to facilitate oxi-
dation by Ag(II). A proposed mechanism for the reaction is
shown in Scheme 3.
Supporting Information).
!!
!
!!!!! !!!! !!!
!
! [!] = !!!! ! !!!!
!"!
(2)
!!
−
!
!"!
!
!"
!
!!!!!!
!
! !!!
!
!
!!
The derived rate law can be compared to the empirical rate
law (eq 3), in which 1, S2O82-, and Ag(I) are first order and 2 is
inverse half order. The reaction orders in the empirical rate
law can be equated to the first order of 1 and Ag(I), positive
additive order of S2O82-, and overall inverse fractional order
Under the conditions of the reaction, pyridine coordinates to
Ag(I), followed by persulfate oxidation in the rate-limiting
step. The resulting Ag(II)-pyridine complex oxidizes the ar-
ylboronic acid, producing an aryl radical, which can then add
to the pyridinium ion leading to product. An off-cycle step is
also involved outside of the desired pathway, in which the
arylboronic acid is protodeboronated, leading to unwanted
side products.
of 2, as shown in the derived rate law.
!!
[!] !!!! [!"!]!"!
! [!]
−
≈ !!"#
(3)
!.!
!"
!
Aside from providing insight into the reaction mechanism,
these results provide a means to optimize reaction condi-
tions and increase the yield of the reaction. The inverse half
order of 2 indicates that increasing its concentration is dele-
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Scheme 3. Proposed Mechanism of the Ag(I)/Persulfate-Catalyzed Arylation of Electron-deficient Pyridine
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The mechanistic experiments described herein show an un-
expected degree of complexity in the Ag(I)/persulfate-cata-
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lyzed cross-coupling of arylboronic acids and pyridines, in-
formation that could not otherwise be extracted from the use
of simple empirical models or studies based on product dis-
tributions. The mechanism derived from spectroscopic and
kinetic studies shows that Ag(I) is activated for reduction of
persulfate and an off-cycle protodeboronation by pyridine.
These results provide the key mechanistic insight that ena-
bles control of the off-cycle process thus providing higher
efficiency and yield. In addition, literature precedent and
evidence provided herein demonstrate that Ag(II) is the like-
ly oxidant responsible for formation of aryl radicals from aryl
boronic acids. While the studies presented clarify several
mechanistic details of the Ag(I)/persulfate catalyzed cross-
coupling of arylboronic acids and pyridines, the results may
have impact in the design and refinement of other radical-
based additions proceeding through catalytic oxidations me-
diated by Ag(I)/persulfate.
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
Supporting Information
Experimental procedures, kinetic data, and spectral data.
This material is available free of charge via the Internet at
http://pubs.acs.org
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
rof2@lehigh.edu
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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986-989.
(13) Butters, M.; Harvey, J. N.; Jover, J.; Lennox, A. J. J.; Lloyd-
Jones, G. C.; Murray, P. M. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2010, 49, 5156-5160.
(14) Kalb, A. J.; Allen, T. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 5107-5112.
(15) Shundrin, L.A.; Bardin V.V.; Frohn, H.-J. Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem.
2004, 630, 1253-1257.
R.A.F. is grateful to the National Institutes of Health
(GM075960-03) for support of this work. We thank Dr. James
Devery and Dr. Lawrence Courtney for useful discussion and
aid in the elucidation of the reaction mechanism, and Dr.
Brian Casey for initial work on this project
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