Lithium-air and lithium-copper batteries based on a polymer stabilized interface between two immiscible electrolytic solutions (ITIES)

Article abstract of DOI:10.1039/c2nj40517b

We propose and demonstrate the direct application of immiscible aqueous/organic interfaces in lithium-air and lithium-copper batteries. Therefore, the two half-reactions are separated in their respectively favourable electrolytic environments without using any other membranes. In order to prevent water and oxygen from interrupting the reaction in organic phases, we add poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) to propylene carbonate (PC) and investigate its concentration effects using Pt ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs). Pt UMEs provide us the sensitive measure of water contamination as well as the diffusion property of oxygen in the polymer electrolytes. By studying the discharge profiles under various electrolytic conditions, we demonstrate that these batteries are of longer discharge time and higher specific capacity when the polymer electrolyte contains about 10 to 20% of PMMA.

Full text of DOI:10.1039/c2nj40517b

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Lithium-air and Lithium-copper Batteries Based on Polymer Stabilized
Interface between Two Immiscible Electrolytic Solutions (ITIES)**
Borong Wu, Xiaohui Chen, Cunzhong Zhang*, Daobin Mu, Feng Wu
5
Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China, 100081
Corresponding Author: cunzhong zhang. Tel: (+) 86-10-68912657 E-mail: czzhangchem@bit.edu.cn
Received (in XXX, XXX) Xth XXXXXXXXX 20XX, Accepted Xth XXXXXXXXX 20XX
DOI: 10.1039/b000000x
the bottleneck, the rigidity and chemical stability of these thin
50 films are still questionable, especially when in contact with a
basic electrolyte for long operation times.
In this paper, we propose the direct application of immiscible
aqueous/soft polymer interfaces in double electrolytes Li
batteries. As shown in scheme 1, the soft polymer is a polymer
55 matrix of propylene carbonate (PC) mixed with poly(methylꢀ
methacrylate) (PMMA) and supporting electrolyte such as
LiClO4 or TBAPF6. Other polymer matrixes including
Abstract: We propose and demonstrate the direct application of
10 immiscible aqueous/organic interfaces in lithiumꢀair and lithiumꢀ
copper batteries. Therefore, the two halfꢀreactions are separated
in their respectively favourable electrolytic environments without
using any other membranes. In order to prevent water and oxygen
from interrupting the reaction in organic phases, we add
15 poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) to propylene carbonate (PC)
and investigate its concentration effects using Pt ultraꢀ
microelectrodes (UME). Pt UME provides us the sensitive
measure of water contamination as well as the diffusion property
of oxygen in the polymer electrolytes. By studying the discharge
20 profiles under various electrolytic conditions, we demonstrate
that these batteries are of longer discharge time and higher
specific capacity when the polymer electrolyte contains about 10
to 20% of PMMA.
poly(ethylene
oxide)
(PEO),
polyacrylonitrile
(PAN),
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride)
60 (PVDF), and their copolymers have been tested in single polymer
phase Li ion batteries.17ꢀ19
65
Introduction
25 Lithiumꢀair battery has been a focus of study for the past two
decades because of its high energy and power density.1ꢀ3 Usually
a single phase of organic electrolytes is used since lithium is
extremely active in aqueous electrolytes.2,4,5 Many efforts have
been made so far in discovering novel electrode materials to
30 improve the performance of Liꢀair batteries.6ꢀ9 Two obvious
problems, however, are still challengingly remained. First, the
easy contamination of the organic electrolytes with water and
oxygen leads to selfꢀdischarging of Liꢀair batteries through
spontaneous chemical reactions between lithium and water or
35 oxygen. Second, the products, Li2O or Li2O2, are not soluble in
organic phases and thus block the active electrode surfaces and
the porous gas diffusive membranes.10,11
Very recently, aqueous/organic electrolytic Liꢀair batteries
were studied using a super ionic conductor glass ceramic film
40 (LISICON) to separate the aqueous electrolytes from the organic
ones.3,12,13,14 The addition of aqueous compartment to the single
organic phase has granted the extension of Liꢀair batteries to
many other types of battery, combining possibly the positive
electrodes, such as Cu15 and Ni16, in aqueous electrolytes with the
45 waterꢀreactive electrodes like Li and Na in organic
electrolytes.12,13,14 Those alternatives may, therefore, become
promising when searching for cheap and high energy density
batteries. While the properties of ionic ceramic glass films hold
70
Scheme 1. The soft polymer electrolyte is used as both organic electrolyte
and waterꢀproof membrane in nonꢀaqueous/aqueous double electrolytic
lithium batteries.
75
In our cases, the soft polymer electrolyte, together with
interface between two immiscible electrolytic solutions (ITIES),
plays the role not only as organic electrolyte for Li anode but also
as membrane to prevent the penetration of water and oxygen from
aqueous electrolyte phase. Ideally, it would be desirable that the
80 soft polymer electrolyte is completely waterꢀproof and oxygen
resistive when in direct contact with aqueous electrolytes.
PMMAꢀbased polymer electrolyte has been used extensively in
Liꢀion battery because of merits of the compound 20. Historically,
such immiscible interfaces have been applied and wellꢀstudied in
85 many other fields, such as phase transfer catalysis (PTC) 21 and
22ꢀ24
electrochemistry at the ITIES,
respectively. To prove the
concept, we show that adding PMMA into PC improves both the
rigidity of the organic polymer and the resistance to water and
oxygen. At 10% to 20% of PMMA concentrations both Liꢀair and
90 LiꢀCu batteries showed promising discharge performance.
Results and Discussion
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0.5molLꢀ1 TBAPF6 mixtures. When the potential is scanned
negatively, the current is sharply increased at the potentials
1. Elementary properties of polymer electrolytes
We first studied the change of conductivity and viscosity of 65 negative of ꢀ1.8 V. Such rapid current increase is due to the
polymer electrolyte with the increase of PMMA concentration.
electrolyte decomposition, i.e., typically hydrogen evolution
reaction. Note that the onset potential of such a decomposition
reaction is shifted more and more negatively with the increase of
PMMA concentration, indicating that the increase of PMMA
70 concentration can enhance the electrolyte stability and broaden
the electrochemical window. On the other hand, the negatively
shifted decomposition reaction also illustrates that the water
contamination is inhibited with the increase of PMMA
concentration. Better water resistivity is desirable in
75 organic/aqueous electrolyte batteries and we will show later that
the addition of PMMA to PC polymer electrolyte indeed
dramatically improves the battery discharge performance.
When the polymer electrolyte is saturated by standard gas
(VO2/VN2 = 1:4), Figure 1(C) shows oxygen reduction profiles at
80 Pt UMEs. From each mixture, the curve shows the steadyꢀstate
oxygen reduction current at potentials below ꢀ0.85V, in
agreement with previous studies of oxygen reduction in organic
electrolytes27ꢀ30. The current plateau around 0.32 V (E1/2) is
created by Fc+/Fc redox couple as the inner potential standard.
85 The current peaks at about ꢀ0.2 V is possibly due to unknown
ingredients from PMMA. According to the following equation,
5
Table 1. Effect of PMMA concentration on bulk conductivity (σ)
and dynamic viscosity (η) of the soft polymer electrolytes.
CPMMA(%)
σ(S
cm-1)×103
η (mPa s)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
3.17
2.99
2.77
2.52
1.91
1.32
0.82
•
•
2.53
12.2
323
1560
9600
22000
65000
As shown in Table 1, the conductivity of the polymer electrolyte
10 is decreased slowly at PMMA concentration below 15%, then a
little more rapidly from 15% to 30%. The viscosity is increased,
however, very rapidly with the increase of PMMA concentration.
The polymer mixture is much more like a solid polymer at 25%
to 30% of PMMA. We then study the compatibility of the
15 interface between lithium and soft polymer electrolytes using
symmetrical buttonꢀtype cells, Li/(PC+PMMA+LiClO4)/Li. The
AC impedance curves shown in Figure 1(A) demonstrate typical
electrode/electrolyte interfacial behaviour. The high frequency
intercepts at the realꢀaxis and a large semicircle corresponds to
20 the electrolyte resistance and passive film impedance,
respectively. Compared to the results of PMMA free PC
electrolytes,25,26 our data suggest that adding PMMA into PC did
not prevent the formation of passive film on the surface of
lithium electrodes. Moreover, the larger impedance of the passive
25 film would lead to higher stability of lithium in contact with the
polymer electrolytes when containing PMMA.
iss= 4rnFDO2CO2
(1)
90 Where r is the radius of PtꢀUME, n is the number of electrons
transferred, F is faraday constant, DO2 and CO2 are diffusion
coefficient and concentration of oxygen molecules, respectively.
Assuming n is not varied, the steady state current is then
functional to both DO2 and CO2. To identify both values, we
95 record the currentꢀtime transient profiles while the potential was
pulsed from ꢀ0.4 to ꢀ1.2 V. A typical normalized i/iss ~ tꢀ1/2 curve
is shown in Figure 1(D). The value of DO2 in each polymer
electrolyte can then be obtained by: 31ꢀ33
6
conc. of PMMA
0%
5%
450
300
150
0
(A)
(B)
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
30
35
40
45
4
2
0
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
100
i/iss = 0.7854 + 0.8862(r/2)(DO2t) ꢀ1/2
(2)
0
100
200
300
400
0
-1
-2
-3
Z / ohm
r is radius of PtꢀUME. After getting DO2 values, the value of CO2
can then be obtained using equation 1. Both values are
summarized in Table 2.
E/ Vvs Ag QRE
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
75
50
25
0
(C)
0%
(D)
105
5%
Table 2. Effect of PMMA concentration on SteadyꢀState Current
of ORR (iss), diffusion coefficient of Oxygen (DO2) and solubility
10%
15%
of Oxygen (CO2
)
20%
25%
30%
CPMMA
iss ×109(A)
DO2×107(cm2
CO2×103(mol cm-3)
0%
78
5%
56
10%
41
15%
27.2
2.38
2.47
20%
18.8
1.60
2.44
25%
5.5
30%
1.5
0.5
1.0
t -1/2 / s-1/2
1.5
2.0
0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0
•
s-1)
6.37
2.54
4.59
2.53
3.35
2.54
0.52
2.44
0.13
2.45
E / V vs Ag QRE
•
Figure 1. (A) The impedance curves recorded at Li/(PMMA+
LiClO4(0.5molLꢀ1) + PC)/Li cells at various PMMA concentrations. (B, C)
110
Typically, solubility of oxygen is not greatly affected by the
additions of PMMA, thus the variation of steady state current is
mostly determined by the diffusion coefficient of oxygen
molecules (DO2). The dramatically decreased diffusion coefficient
50 Cyclic voltammograms of a Pt UME in water or air saturated PMMAꢀ
containing polymer electrolytes. scan rate: 1 mVsꢀ1. CTBAPF6: 0.5molLꢀ1
(D) i/iss～tꢀ1/2 curve extracted from a chronoamperometric experiment for
20% of PMMA. The potential is stepped to ꢀ1.2 V. The dots are
experimental data, the slope and horizontal solid lines represent the
55 transient to steadyꢀstate currents (iss). iss: 18.8 nA.
115 of oxygen at increased PMMA concentration is mainly due to the
increased viscosity. Meanwhile, the trend can’t be explained by
StokesꢀEinstein equation quantitatively. Compared with previous
reports,34,35 our results suggest that electron selfꢀexchange
The influence of PMMA concentration on water and oxygen
resistivity is studied using Pt UMEs, which are electrochemically
sensitive to water and oxygen. Before each measurement, the
60 polymer electrolytes are kept at room temperature for overnight
so that they are saturated with water or oxygen. Figure 1(B)
shows the cyclic voltammograms recorded in PMMA + PC +
reaction plays
a nonꢀnegligible role in apparent diffusion
120 coefficient (DO2) when the viscosity of polymer electrolytes is
higher.
2. Double electrolytes Li-air batteries and Li-Cu batteries
2
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The Liꢀair batteries based on interface between aqueous and
soft polymer electrolytes are constructed using a Li foil as anode
and a 0.5 mm diameter Pt disk as cathode. The thickness of the
polymer electrolyte is about 3 cm, and that of the aqueous
electrolyte is about 2 cm. No additional films are used to separate
these two phases. At PMMA concentration below 5%, bubbles
are formed very quickly when discharging, thus the cell can be
discharged only for a very short time period (Figure 2, curve (1)).
mechanism of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Even if overꢀ
potential of ORR is taken into account, the potential sequence
remains same and as shown in Figure 3(A).
70
According to the pH condition of aqueous electrolytes, the
electrode reactions and total cell reactions can be listed as follows:
(1). Acidic condition:
5
10
15
20
positive electrode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e→ 2H2O
E0 = 1.23V (aH+= 1molLꢀ1)
3.5
75
negative electrode:
E0 = ꢀ3.045V
4Li – 4e → 4Li +
(1)5%
(2) 10%
3.0
(3) 15%
Total reaction: O2 + 4Li + 4H+ → 2H2O + 4Li+
2.5
(4)
(5)
20%
25%
(emf= 4.235V, aH+=1molLꢀ1)
(6)
30%
2.0
1.5
1.0
(2). Basic condition:
Li-air
80
positive electrode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e→ 4OHꢀ
E0 = 0.43V (aOHꢀ= 1molLꢀ1)
0
1000
2000
3000
specific energy / mAh g-1
negative electrode: 4Li – 4e → 4Li +
E0 = ꢀ3.045V
Figure
2
Liꢀair batteries discharging at different PMMA
concentration in polymer phase with 0.5molLꢀ1 LiClO4. Aqueous
electrolyte: 0.5 molLꢀ1 H2SO4.
Total reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4Li → 4LiOH
(emf= 3.475V, aOHꢀ = 1molLꢀ1)
25 The bubbles formed at metal lithium electrode surfaces are due to
electrolytic decomposition of water and poor stability of ITIES
during discharging process. With the increase of PMMA
concentration, however, the discharge voltage becomes relatively
stable and the cell can be discharged for a much longer time
30 (Figure 2, red, blue and pink curves). According to the theoretic
specific energy of Li, 3860mAhgꢀ1, the value of discharge
specific energy suggests that the columbic efficiency is about
90%, that is, metal lithium is electroꢀoxidized basically at suitable
CPMMA scope. At very high PMMA concentrations, from 25% to
35 30%, the discharge voltage fluctuates, partly due to higher
rigidity of polymer electrolyte and the poor contact of polymer
electrolyte to the relatively rough Li electrode surfaces.
Meanwhile, the ITIES still keeps relatively stable as the
concentration of PMMA is increased. The results also indicated
40 that the discharge voltage decrease with the increase of
concentration of PMMA. The tendency is ascribed to the lower
conductivity of more concentrated PMMAꢀbased polymer
electrolytes, see Table 1.
85
Moreover, the ORR is both pHꢀdependent reaction and
irreversible electrochemical reaction (exchange current density is
about 10ꢀ7Acmꢀ2)14, 31, 36. On the contrary, redox reaction of Li+/Li
couple is pHꢀindependent in organic electrolytes. In addition, the
90 exchange current density of the Li+/Li is relatively higher ( about
10ꢀ4Acmꢀ2) in many polymer electrolytes 37ꢀ39, that is, Li+/Li
couple is similar to quasiꢀreversible electrode and its potential is
more stable. So, the discharge voltage of double electrolyte Liꢀair
battery is also pHꢀdependent, shown in Figure 3(B), and the
95 discharge voltage sequence is determined by potential sequence
of ORR. Furthermore, the Liꢀair battery built by PMMA
stabilized ITIES exhibits better discharging capacity, which is
comparable with the reported results previously12,13. The results
suggest that PMMA stabilized ITIES is alternative separation
100 fashion for preparing double electrolytes Liꢀair battery.
Last, the effect of discharge current density is also studied and
exhibited as Figure 4.
45
We study the effect of pH on the performance of Liꢀair
batteries and show in Figure 3.
0.5mA/g
3.0
105
1.0mA/g
1.5mA/g
2.0mA/g
2.5
-1
(1)
(2)
(1) 0.5molL HSO
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
2
4
3.0mA/g
-1
0.10
0.05
(2) 0.5molL Na SO
2 4
-1
2.0
50
(3)
(3)1molL NaOH
110
aqueouselectrolyte
-1
1.5
Li-air
(1)0.5mol L HSO
2
4
(1)
(2)
(3)
-1
0
1000
2000
3000
(2)0.5mol L NaSO
2
4
specific energy / mAh g -1
-1
(A)
(3)1mol L NaOH
55 0.00
(B)
3000
115 Figure 4. Discharging of Liꢀair batteries at different current densities,
0
1000
2000
PMMA concentration: 10%, Aqueous electrolyte: 0.5molLꢀ1 H2SO4.
0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6
specificenergy/ mAhg-1
potential / VvsSCE
The results indicated that discharge performance of such
double electrode electrolytes Liꢀair, is very similar to that of
120 LISICONꢀinvolved double electrolytes Liꢀair battery3. The results
demonstrate that reasonable, good quality of discharge
performance.
60 Figure 3 (A). The quasiꢀsteadyꢀstate curves of ORR at a 100ꢀm Pt disk
electrode in aqueous electrolyte of different pH, exhibited in figure. Scan
rate:
1
mVsꢀ1. (B). Discharging of Liꢀair battery at different pH
conditions, the polymer phase contains 10% PMMA.
Figure 5(A) shows the discharge profiles of lithiumꢀcopper
125 batteries assembled using 10% of PMMA in PC electrolyte.
65
The results show that the discharge plateau is pHꢀdependent.
Such discharge performance is ascribed to the reaction
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and ion selective
would be employed for the development of
20ꢀ22
and achievement of PTC 19, ITIES
65 electrodes (ISE)
Figure 5(A) shows the discharge profiles of lithiumꢀcopper
batteries assembled using 10% of PMMA in PC electrolyte. A
copper spiral wire is used as cathode. The copper ion
concentration is varied from 1.5 molLꢀ1 to 0.5molLꢀ1. The
discharge voltages are stable at all copper concentrations. The
higher copper concentration, the larger the discharge voltage, in
accordance to Nernst equation. LiꢀCu battery composed of
PMMA polymer electrolyte shows much better discharge
capacity and stability compared to the LiꢀCu aqueous/organic
41, 42
organic/aqueous electrolytes batteries in next work. We are
carrying more experiments to improve the ITIES stability and
tune the ionic transport properties across ITIES in batteries in
absence of any additional solid film membranes.
5
70
Acknowledgment
10 batteries studied using LISICON membrane 13. Moreover, we
find that the effect of CPMMA, show as Figure 5(B), on the
performance of LiꢀCu batteries is similar to that of CPMMA on Liꢀ
air battery.
Special Foundation of Beijing EV Dynamic Engineering Center(2011),
Open foundation of Solid surface physical chemistry State Key
Laboratory, Xiamen University(2010ꢀ18).This work is sponsored by the
75 Major State Basic Research Project of China (No. 2009CB220100).
3.5
15
(1)
(2)
5%
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
10%
15%
20%
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Experimental Sections:
(3)
concentration of Cu+2
(1): 1.5mol L-1
(2): 1.0mol L-1
(3): 0.5mol L-1
CPMMA :10%
Agents:
Propylene
carbonate
(PC),
tetraꢀnꢀbutylammonium
hexafluorophosphate (TBAPF6) (Aldrich), LiClO4, ferrocene (Fc),
80 acetone, H2SO4, NaOH, Na2SO4, CuSO4 are analytical grade reagent.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is battery grade reagent. Aqueous
electrolytes were prepared using triple distillated water. The mass
concentration of PMMA in PC is adjusted from 0 to 30%. TBAPF6 or
LiClO4 is used as the support electrolyte in polymer electrolytes and the
85 concentration is about 0.5molLꢀ1.
25%
30%
20
25
(B)
(A)
0
1000
2000
3000
0
1000
2000
3000
-1
specific energy / mAh g-1
specific energy / mAhg
Figure 5 (A) LiꢀCu battery discharging at different Cu2+ concentrations
(aqueous electrolyte). 10% PMMA, CLiClO4:0.5molLꢀ1(organic electrolyte),
(calculated by the weight of lithium). discharge current density: 1 mAgꢀ1
30 (B). LiꢀCu batteries discharging at different PMMA concentration in
polymer phase with 0.5molLꢀ1 LiClO4. Aqueous electrolyte: 1.5molLꢀ1
CuSO4. discharge current density: 1 mAgꢀ1
Preparation of soft polymer electrolytes: PMMA is first dissolved in
acetone, then, mixed with solution of PC and supporting electrolyte
(LiClO4 or TBAPF6). After stirring, the mixture is vacuumed to evaporate
90 acetone. The final concentration of LiClO4 or TBAPF6 is ~0.5molLꢀ1.
Assembly of button-type Li battery: Symmetrical buttonꢀtype batteries, Li |
LiClO4 + PC + PMMA | Li, were assembled in a glove box for studying
the compatibility of the lithium/soft polymer electrolyte interfaces. Two
95 Li foils were separated by a thin piece of PDMS ring (Celgard2300) of
about 100ꢁm thick inside which polymer electrolyte was filled. Before
measurement, the cell was stored without shake for ~24 hours inside the
glove box for a good contact between lithium and polymer electrolytes.
The diameter of lithium disk is about 15mm.
At suitable PMMA concentrations, from 10% to 20%, LiꢀCu
35 batteries also exhibited more stable discharge voltage and more
durable discharge time. The phenomena suggest that both
polymer electrolytes and polymer stabilized ITIES are stable.
Meanwhile, at very high PMMA concentrations, from 25% to
30%, the discharge voltage fluctuates, partly due to higher
40 rigidity of polymer electrolyte and the poor contact of polymer
electrolyte to the relatively rough Li electrode surfaces. Results
indicate that the discharge specific energy is about 3000 mAhgꢀ1
when scope of CPMMA is suitable (calculated by the weight of
lithium). Based on the theoretic specific capacity of metal Li,
45 3860mAhgꢀ1, the value of discharge specific energy suggests that
the columbic efficiency is about 78% at such condition. In future,
it is important and meaningful for improvement of the safety and
energy conversion efficiency to improve the ITIES stability and
tune the ionic transport dynamic properties across polymer
50 stabilized ITIES in batteries in absence of any additional solid
ceramic membranes.
100
Assembly of aqueous/soft polymer Li-air and Li-Cu batteries: After
weight measurement, the Li foil is fixed at the very end of a Teflon disc
with a nickel wire. The surface is then soaked into a polymer electrolyte
containing 0.5molLꢀ1 LiClO4. Since the density of polymer phase is
105 greater than that of aqueous electrolytes, it is then always located at the
bottom of the cell attached to lithium electrode. The polymer phase is
then carefully covered by aqueous electrolytes. A Pt disk (0.5mm
diameter) sealed with a soft glass tube, or a Cu wire (0.5mm diameter and
10cm length) bent in spiral shape, is used as cathode in Liꢀair or LiꢀCu
110 battery, respectively. The aqueous/nonꢀaqueous interface can be clearly
observed before discharging. The interfacial area is about 1.15cm2.
Electrochemical experiment: Cyclic voltammetry is carried out using
potentiostat CHI660C with a threeꢀelectrode system including a Pt UME
115 (diameter is 25ꢀm) or a Pt microꢀdisk (diameter is 100ꢀm) electrode as
the working electrode, a Ag wire as the quasiꢀreference electrode
(ferrocenium ion/ferrocene (Fc+/Fc) redox couple in same electrolyte was
used as inner potential standard), and a Ti wire as the counter electrode.
The Pt UME or Pt microꢀdisk electrode is polished by αꢀAl2O3 slurry
Conclusions
PMMA can be applied to improve the water and oxygen
55 resistance of PC often used in organic lithium batteries. The PC 120 down to 0.1ꢀm and cleaned by acetone and dried by N2. The bulk
conductivity of polymer electrolytes and compatibility of the lithium/soft
electrolytes containing about 10% to 20% of PMMA show much
polymer electrolyte interfaces are measured by AC impedance technique
better discharge stability when in direct contact with aqueous
using Pt/polymer electrolyte/Pt and Li/polymer electrolyte/Li symmetrical
acidic, neutral and basic electrolytes. We propose that such a
buttonꢀtype cells, respectively, at the openꢀcircuit condition. Battery
polymer matrix can be used to construct organic/aqueous
60 batteries without using any other solid ionic ceramic membranes.
Our results so far indicate that the waterꢀproof and oxygen
resistive soft polymer electrolytes, together with ITIES, can play
similar roles and function as LISICON. The principle, technique
125 discharge curves are recorded using Land Charge/discharge System
(Wuhan Jinꢀno, China). All of electrochemical and discharge experiments
are carried out at room temperature, 22±2 ℃.
Notes and references
4
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