Early main-group metal catalysts for the hydrogenation of alkenes with H2

Article abstract of DOI:10.1002/anie.200804657

(Chemical Equation Presented) Transition-metal-free hydrogenation of alkenes can be carried out with simple organocalcium catalysts (20 bar H ₂, 20°C). Both steps in the proposed catalytic cycle, hydride addition to the double bond and σ-bond metathesis with H₂, have been confirmed. Alkenes sensitive to polymerization are also hydrogenated in good yields.

Full text of DOI:10.1002/anie.200804657

Communications
DOI: 10.1002/anie.200804657
Homogeneous Catalysis
Early Main-Group Metal Catalysts for the Hydrogenation of Alkenes
with H2**
Jan Spielmann, Frank Buch, and Sjoerd Harder*
Although the catalytic hydrogenation of unsaturated com-
pounds represents one of the earliest examples in heteroge-
neous[1] as well as homogeneous[2] catalysis, research on this
particular conversion is still thriving.[3] It boasts a myriad of
industrial applications and, on account of important break-
throughs in catalytic asymmetric hydrogenation,[4] can be a
convenient key step in the production of chiral pharmaceut-
ical products. As molecular hydrogen will potentially play a
major role in future chemistry, it is anticipated that the
importance of catalytic hydrogenation will further expand.[5]
Whereas traditional homogeneous hydrogenation cata-
lysts are based on precious metals, there is an increase in
research efforts to find cheaper alternatives. This quest for
“Cheap Metals for Noble Tasks”[6] provides savings from
lower catalyst cost and less-demanding requirements for
catalyst recovery. In this context, especially the use of
environmentally friendly metals should be promoted. New-
generation catalysts for hydrogenation are based on hetero-
lytic cleavage of molecular hydrogen into a hydridic (Hꢀ) and
protic (H+) functionality. For example, the key to ionic
hydrogenation of ketones is a catalyst which incorporates
both functionalities [Eq. (1), M = Fe or Ru].[7] Claims of a
naturally occurring metal-free hydrogenase were recently
withdrawn, as an iron-based cofactor was found.[8] In this
light, the discovery of the first non-transition-metal catalyst
for ketone hydrogenation, the simple reagent KOtBu
[Eq. (2)],[9] should be regarded as a breakthrough. Recently,
small organic molecules have been shown to activate hydro-
gen[10] and the first metal-free catalysts for ketone and imine
hydrogenation have been introduced.[10f,11] The latter organo-
catalytic reaction is based on heterolytic cleavage of H2 by the
unique reactivity of frustrated Lewis pairs [Eq. (3)].
Hitherto, very few reports on the use of main-group metal
catalysts in alkene hydrogenation have appeared. Recently,
iodoboranes were introduced as Lewis acidic catalysts for the
liquefaction of coal by hydrogenation (280–3508C, 150–
250 bar H2).[12a] Earlier reports on hydridic hydrogenation
catalysts include processes mediated by soluble LiAlH4[12b] or
by suspensions of NaH, KH, and MgH2.[12c] In all cases,
reaction conditions are extreme (150–2258C, 60–100 bar H2)
and various products, including oligomers and polymers, were
obtained. Herein, we report on the hydrogenation of con-
jugated alkene functionalities with well-defined organocal-
cium catalysts and discuss the use of other early main-group
metals.
A potential mechanism for the calcium-mediated hydro-
genation of alkenes (Scheme 1) is analogous to that for
organolanthanide-catalyzed alkene hydrogenation.[13] A pre-
cedent for the actual catalyst, a calcium hydride complex, has
been recently reported (1 in Scheme 2).[14]
[*] J. Spielmann, F. Buch, Prof. Dr. S. Harder
Anorganische Chemie, Universitꢀt Duisburg-Essen
Universitꢀtsstrasse 5, 45117 Essen (Germany)
Fax: (+49)201-1832621
E-mail: sjoerd.harder@uni-due.de
[**] We acknowledge Prof. Dr. Boese and D. Blꢀser for collection of X-ray
data and H. Bandmann for measurement of two-dimensional
500 MHz NMR spectra.
Supporting information for this article (Experimental details for the
catalytic experiments, product characterization, syntheses of 3, 7,
and Ph2CKMe, and crystal structure data for 2, 3, and 7) is available
on the WWW under http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.200804657.
Scheme 1. Proposed catalytic cycle for calcium-mediated hydrogena-
tion of conjugated alkenes. L=ligand.
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The first step in the catalytic cycle, addition of 1 to an
alkene, has been verified by stoichiometric reactions with
conjugated alkenes (under normal conditions, 1 does not react
with non-activated alkenes).[15] 1,1-Diphenylethylene (DPE)
reacts cleanly with 1 at 608C, to form complex 2 (Scheme 2),
which has been unequivocally characterized by crystal
structure determination (Figure 1). Contacts between Ca2+
Figure 2. The crystal structure of 3; hydrogen atoms (except those of
the Me-allyl unit) and iPr substituents have been omitted for clarity.
Selected bond distances: Ca–N1 2.371(1), Ca–N2 2.342(1), Ca–
O1 2.374(1), Ca–C31 2.658(2), Ca–C32 2.624(2), Ca–C33 2.638(2) ꢁ.
between endo and exo isomers. However, at ꢀ508C, exclu-
sively the endo isomer was detected.
The second step in the catalytic cycle, that is, s-bond
metathesis between the organocalcium intermediate and H2,
is in agreement with the heterolytic protocol (protic/hydridic)
for activation of molecular hydrogen. This reaction, however,
is unprecedented in calcium chemistry. Although it is
extremely fast for alkyllanthanide complexes,[13] examples in
early main-group metal chemistry are rare. The reaction of
tert-butyllithium with H2 yields an active form of LiH, but
requires forcing conditions (200 bar H2).[16] Appropriate polar
(co)solvents, such as tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA)
or THF, drastically lower the energy barrier and allow
conversion of nBuLi into LiH, even at atmospheric pres-
sure.[17] However, hydrogenolysis of lithium compounds can
be regarded as an acid–base equilibrium, that is strongly
dependent on the basicity of the carbanion, as demonstrated
by calculations (MP2/6-31 + + G**//6-31 + + G**). Whereas
Figure 1. The crystal structure of 2; hydrogen atoms and iPr substitu-
ents have been omitted for clarity. Selected bond distances:
Ca–N1 2.333(2), Ca–N2 2.350(2), Ca–O1 2.349(2), Ca–C32 3.019(2),
Ca–C33 2.819(2), Ca–C34 2.754(2), Ca–C35 2.752(2), Ca–C36 2.754(2),
Ca–C37 2.838(2), C30–C31 1.521(3), C30–C32 1.387(3), C30–
C38 1.462(3) ꢁ.
and the benzylic carbon atom (C30) are absent and the
(Ph2CMe)ꢀ ion coordinates exclusively to the metal through a
Ph···Ca p interaction, inducing extensive charge delocaliza-
ꢀ
tion in the ring, as is evident from the very short Ca Cipso bond
ꢀ
length (C30 C32). Reaction of 1 with myrcene, a molecule
=
incorporating three C C bonds, indicates that addition of the
calcium hydride functionality can be quite selective
(Scheme 2). Hydride attack at the terminal monosubstituted
double bond resulted in formation of 3, which crystallized
from solution as the endo-Me isomer (Figure 2). NMR
spectroscopic investigations on a solution of 3 in [D8]toluene
at room temperature gave evidence for fast exchange
the reaction CH3Li + H2!CH4 + LiH is exothermic
ꢀ1
ꢁ
ꢁ
(ꢀ8.3 kcalmol ), the reaction LiC CH + H2!HC CH +
LiH is highly endothermic (+ 23.4 kcalmolꢀ1).[18] As the pKa
value of H2 is relatively high (ca. 35),[19] it is questionable
whether the resultant stabilized benzylic and allylic carban-
ions in Scheme 2 could undergo
efficient hydrogenolysis to regen-
erate a calcium hydride function-
ality.
First information on such s-
bond metathesis processes was
obtained by saturation of a solu-
tion of the calcium deuteride [D2]-
1 in benzene with H2. Under very
mild
conditions,
fast
D/H
exchange was detected (Table 1,
entry 1).[20] Although this thermo-
neutral reaction is fast, metathesis
between the benzylic calcium
complex 2 and H2 was slower and
Scheme 2. Hydrogenation of 1,1-diphenylethylene and myrcene, catalyzed by 1.
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 9434 –9438
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Table 1: Reaction of various early main-group metal compounds with molecular hydrogen at 208C.
zation or polymerization, are sup-
pressed (Scheme 1). Under condi-
tions that allow for addition of 1 to
DPE (608C) and subsequent hydro-
Entry
Substrate
Solvent
H2 [bar]
t [h]
conv. [%]
Product(s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1-[D2]
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
C6H6
C6H6
C6H6
THF
THF
THF
THF
THF
THF
THF
THF
1
20
20
20
20
20
1
20
20
20
20
0.3
15
0.5
0.1
0.5
5
265
5
5
0.5
90
>99
7
>99
48
>99
55
87
[H2]-1
Ph2CHMe
Ph2CHMe
genation of intermediate
2 (at
20 bar H2 in benzene medium), we
detected slow catalytic conversion
(Table 2, entry 1). The alternative
homoleptic dibenzylcalcium cata-
lyst 4 gave similar results (Table 2,
entry 2). Reactions at room temper-
ature showed essentially no conver-
sion. Utilizing THF as the reaction
medium, however, resulted in a
Ph2CHMe
3 isomers[a]
3 isomers[a]
a-Me3Si-2-Me2N-toluene
a-Me3Si-2-Me2N-toluene
2-Me2NC7H7 +Me3SiH
2-Me2NC6H4CH(SiMe3)CH2CHPh2
Ph2C(H)Me
6
7
>99
84
33
10
11
Ph2CKMe
17
[a] See Scheme 1.
Table 2: Summary of results for the hydrogenation of alkenes with various main-group metal catalysts.
required somewhat higher hydro-
gen pressure (20 bar). However, the
reaction was clean, and 1,1-diphe-
nylethane and 1 were formed quan-
titatively (Table 1, entry 2). As has
been reported for lithium chemis-
try,[17] the polarity of the solvent had
a strong influence on the s-bond
Entry Substrate
Solvent
Cat
T [8C] t [h] conv. [%]
Product(s)
[mol%]
1
2
3
DPE
DPE
DPE
C6H6
C6H6
THF
1 (5)
4 (2.5)
4 (2.5)
60
60
20
17
17
3.5
49
41
94
Ph2CHCH3
Ph2CHCH3
92% Ph2CHCH3
8% dimer[a]
4
DPE
THF
+7.5%
HMPA
4 (2.5)
20
1.5 >99
96% Ph2CHCH3
4% dimer[a]
metathesis
process
(Table 1,
entries 3 and 4). In THF, hydro-
genolysis was complete within
about 5 minutes. Hydrogenolysis of
the allylcalcium complex 3 was
somewhat slower and gave rise to
three isomers of hydrogenated myr-
cene (Table 1, entries 5 and 6).
Under atmospheric pressure, the
homoleptic dibenzyl calcium com-
plex 4 reacted extremely slowly
with H2 to afford a-trimethylsilyl-
2-dimethylaminotoluene and pre-
5
6
7
DPE
DPE
DPE
THF
+20% HMPA
THF
CaH2 (30) 100
18
3.5
17
0
93
1
–
5 (2.5)
6 (5)
20
20
92% Ph2CHCH3
8% dimer[a]
Ph2CHCH3
THF
+7.5%
HMPA
THF
8[b] DPE
9[b] DPE
6 (5)
20
60
20
20
20
13
18
15
15
15
>99
>99
21
97% Ph2CHCH3
3% dimer[a]
THF
KH (10)
nBuLi (5)
1 (5)
98% Ph2CHCH3
2% dimer[a]
10
DPE
C6H6
+5% TMEDA
C6H6
14% Ph2CHCH3
7% dimers
11
12
styrene
styrene
>99
>99
81% PhCH2CH3
19% oligomers[c]
85% PhCH2CH3
15% oligomers[c]
PhCH(CH3)2
sumably
“CaH2”
(Table 1,
entry 7).[21] The hydrogenation of 4
C6H6
4(2.5)
occurred much faster at 20 bar of
hydrogen
entry 8).
pressure
(Table 1,
13
14
a-methylstyrene
cyclohexadiene
C6H6
C6H6
1 (5)
4 (2.5)
60
20
25
22
60
96
cyclohexene
Encouragingly, all steps in the
proposed catalytic cycle worked
well under stoichiometric condi-
tions, and we thus set out to test
the Ca-catalyzed hydrogenation. As
a substrate, we initially chose DPE,
an alkene for which potential side
reactions, such as alkene oligomeri-
+traces of dimer
1-phenylcyclo-
hexane
15[b] 1-phenylcyclohex-
ene
THF
6 (5)
60
18
>99
+traces of dimer
[a] The dimeric product 1,1,3,3-tetraphenylbutane is probably formed by addition of (Ph2CMe)ꢀ to 1,1-
diphenylethylene (DPE) followed by hydrogenation. [b] Reaction at 100 bar H2. [c] Oligomers mainly
consist of dimers and traces of trimers and tetramers. The dimer has been characterized as the
cyclodimerization product 1-methyl-3-phenylindane.
significant acceleration. At 208C, nearly complete hydro-
genation occurred within 3.5 hours (Table 2, entry 3). How-
ever, small amounts of the dimeric product 1,1,3,3-tetraphe-
nylbutane were also found. Addition of the highly polar
cosolvent hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) gave faster
conversion and reduced formation of the dimeric by-product
(Table 2, entry 4). The rate-enhancing effect of a polar
reaction medium can be explained by: 1) its ability to keep
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Chemie
any in situ generated “CaH2” in solution and/or 2) acceler-
ation of the s-bond metathesis between the alkylcalcium
intermediate and H2 (see Table 1). Finely ground commer-
cially available CaH2 failed to catalyze this reaction, even
with 30 mol% catalyst loading and under very polar con-
ditions (Table 2, entry 5), indicating that in situ generation of
Repeating the catalytic experiment with 6 at a H2 pressure of
100 bar gave essentially quantitative hydrogenation (Table 2,
entry 8). At 608C, even commercially available potassium
hydride catalyzed the reaction to complete conversion
(Table 2, entry 9). These experiments not only imply that
the metal hydride is the catalytically active species, but also
that its regeneration is the crucial step in the catalytic cycle.
The reaction catalyzed by commercially available nBuLi/
TMEDA proceeded only to low conversion (Table 2,
entry 10), suggesting that, at lower H2 pressures, the heavier
alkaline-earth metal complexes are the more efficient cata-
lysts.
The scope of Ca-mediated alkene hydrogenation was
further investigated by probing alkene substrates sensitive to
polymerization. Attempted hydrogenation of styrene, under
polar conditions (THF, HMPA), gave exclusively polystyrene.
In benzene, however, more than 80% of the hydrogenation
product, PhCH2CH3, was formed (Table 2, entries 11 and 12).
Hydrogenolysis of the intermediate a-methylbenzylcalcium
species is seemingly sufficiently fast, and can compete with
the polymerization side reaction. We attribute the faster
hydrogenolysis to the higher basicity of (PhCHMe)ꢀ com-
pared to (Ph2CMe)ꢀ. It is therefore fortunate that polymer-
ization-sensitive alkenes generally produce the more reactive
(least-stabilized) carbanions that can also undergo efficient
hydrogenolysis under apolar conditions.
ꢀ
the Ca H functionality is of major importance in Ca-
mediated alkene hydrogenation.
The influence of the metal was evaluated by using similar
strontium- and potassium-based catalysts. Whereas strontium
catalyst 5 gave results comparable to its calcium congener
(Table 2, entry 6), the potassium catalyst 6 gave essentially no
conversion, even with addition of HMPA (Table 2, entry 7).
The reason for this large difference in catalytic activity was
investigated by
a
series of stoichiometric reactions
(Scheme 3). The Ca and Sr catalysts, 4 and 5, react with
Myrcene was hydrogenated efficiently with calcium
catalyst 1 to give the three expected isomers depicted in
Scheme 2. As product analysis is complicated to an even
greater extent by the presence of dimeric products, no further
details are given. The 1,1-disubstituted alkene a-methylstyr-
ene can be hydrogenated, albeit at significantly slower rate
(Table 2, entry 13). In this case, no dimeric products were
detected. Hydrogenation of the 1,2-disubstituted alkene,
cyclohexadiene, gave excellent yields of cyclohexene
(Table 2, entry 14). As nBuLi is an extremely active initiator
for the polymerization of conjugated alkenes, such as styrene,
cyclohexadiene, and myrcene, no efforts were made to
hydrogenate these substrates with alkali-metal-based cata-
lysts. However, the trisubstituted alkene 1-phenylcyclohex-
ene, which was not hydrogenated with the calcium catalysts 1
and 4, was fully hydrogenated to phenylcyclohexane with the
Scheme 3. Stoichiometric reactions of the metal-bound benzylic group
with either H2 or DPE.
hydrogen to form a-trimethylsilyl-2-dimethylaminotoluene
and, presumably, the metal hydride. However, reaction of the
potassium catalyst 6 with hydrogen in THF gave 2-dimethyl-
aminotoluene, Me3SiH and, presumably, potassium hydride
(Table 1, entry 9).[21b] Apparently, the KH which forms
initially attacks the silicon center in a-trimethylsilyl-2-dime-
thylaminotoluene, to give Me3SiH and 2-dimethylaminoben-
zylpotassium, which hydrogenates to give 2-dimethylamino-
toluene and KH. After shorter reaction times, some a-
trimethylsilyl-2-dimethylaminotoluene was also isolated.
Likewise, reactions of the catalysts 4, 5, and 6 with DPE
showed large differences. Whereas the Ca and Sr catalysts, 4
and 5, do not react with DPE, even in THF under reflux
conditions, the potassium complex 6 rapidly adds to the
double bond at room temperature to give complex 7, which
crystallizes as a coordination polymer (see the Supporting
Information). As complex 7 can be hydrogenated to its
hydrogenolysis product and KH (Table 1, entry 10), different
initiation reactions do not explain the non-activity of 6 in
alkene hydrogenation. However, the slow reaction of the
intermediate Ph2CKMe with H2, to form KH and Ph2CHMe
(Table 1, entry 11), might be responsible for this low activity.
potassium catalyst
6 at 100 bar H2 pressure (Table 2,
entry 15). Also, the early main-group metal-mediated hydro-
silylation of 1-phenylcyclohexene with PhSiH3, which pre-
sumably proceeds through a catalytic cycle that involves a
metal hydride, could only be achieved with 6, but not with 1 or
4.[22]
In summary, we have introduced a set of well-defined
early main-group metal catalysts for the hydrogenation of a
variety of conjugated alkenes. Although the method could be
limited to substrates with conjugated double bonds, the
resultant exclusive mono-hydrogenation of these dienes is
advantageous.[23] Stoichiometric reactions and the isolation of
intermediates suggest that the proposed catalytic cycle is
similar to that for the lanthanide-catalyzed alkene hydro-
genation. Whereas the alkaline-earth metal catalysts are
effective under relatively mild conditions (208C, 20 bar),
alkali-metal catalysts need a considerably higher H2 pressure.
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Communications
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solvents: polar (co)solvents and the use of more ionic alkali-
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