Electrocatalytic Alcohol Oxidation with TEMPO and Bicyclic Nitroxyl Derivatives: Driving Force Trumps Steric Effects

Article abstract of DOI:10.1021/jacs.5b09672

Bicyclic nitroxyl derivatives, such as 2-azaadamantane N-oxyl (AZADO) and 9-azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane N-oxyl (ABNO), have emerged as highly effective alternatives to TEMPO-based catalysts for selective oxidation reactions (TEMPO = 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidine N-oxyl). Their efficacy is widely attributed to their smaller steric profile; however, electrocatalysis studies described herein show that the catalytic activity of nitroxyls is more strongly affected by the nitroxyl/oxoammonium redox potential than by steric effects. The inexpensive, high-potential TEMPO derivative, 4-acetamido-TEMPO (ACT), exhibits higher electrocatalytic activity than AZADO and ABNO for the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols. Mechanistic studies provide insights into the origin of these unexpected reactivity trends. The superior activity of ACT is especially noteworthy at high pH, where bicyclic nitroxyls are inhibited by formation of an oxoammonium hydroxide adduct.

Full text of DOI:10.1021/jacs.5b09672

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Article
Electrocatalytic Alcohol Oxidation with TEMPO and Bicyclic
Nitroxyl Derivatives: Driving Force Trumps Steric Effects
Mohammad Rafiee, Kelsey C. Miles, and Shannon S. Stahl
J. Am. Chem. Soc., Just Accepted Manuscript • Publication Date (Web): 27 Oct 2015
Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on October 27, 2015
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Electrocatalytic Alcohol Oxidation with TEMPO
and Bicyclic Nitroxyl Derivatives:
Driving Force Trumps Steric Effects
Mohammad Rafiee, Kelsey C. Miles, Shannon S. Stahl*
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Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1101 University Avenue,
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Abstract
Bicyclic nitroxyl derivatives, such as 2-azaadamantane N-oxyl (AZADO) and 9-
azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane N-oxyl (ABNO), have emerged as highly effective alternatives to
TEMPO-based catalysts for selective oxidation reactions (TEMPO = 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-
piperidine N-oxyl). Their efficacy is widely attributed to their smaller steric profile; however,
electrocatalysis studies described herein show that the catalytic activity of nitroxyls is more
strongly affected by the nitroxyl/oxoammonium redox potential than by steric effects. The
inexpensive, high-potential TEMPO derivative, 4-acetamido-TEMPO (ACT), exhibits higher
electrocatalytic activity than AZADO and ABNO for the oxidation of 1° and 2° alcohols.
Mechanistic studies provide insights into the origin of these unexpected reactivity trends. The
superior activity of ACT is especially noteworthy at high pH, where bicyclic nitroxyls are
inhibited by formation of an oxoammonium-hydroxide adduct.
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Introduction
TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidine N-oxyl) and related nitroxyl derivatives are
1
2
important catalysts for alcohol oxidation, and they find widespread used in industrial and
3
laboratory applications (Scheme 1). Diverse stoichiometric oxidants have been used to promote
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catalytic turnover, the most common of which include bleach (NaOCl), hypervalent iodine
1-3
2 x
reagents, and O in combination with NO co-catalysts (Scheme 1A). In addition to these
chemical oxidation methods, nitroxyls have been widely studied as mediators for electrocatalytic
4,5
alcohol oxidation (Scheme 1B). The latter approach has important implications for energy
conversion applications, as demonstrated in recent studies of photoelectrochemical conversion of
4
i
4g,j
biomass and biofuel cells.
Scheme 1. Chemical and Electrochemical Alcohol Oxidation Methods with Nitroxyls of
Different Structures and Redox Potentials.
A)#Chemical#Oxidation
B)#Electrochemical#Oxidation
O
N
O
+
OH
R2
+
OH
R2
N
R
R
R
R
R
[O]
[O]H2
R1
R1
R1
NaOCl
Br2
k1
k2
k2
O
O
PhI(OAc)2
cat. NOx, O2
[O]
OH
N
OH
R2
R1
R2
N
R
R
R
C)#Nitroxyl#Redox#Potentials#(Emp
)
O
AcNH
O
N
N
N
N
N
O
N
O
O
O
O
AZADO
0.45
ABNO
0.48
TEMPO
0.53
Keto-ABNO O
0.63
ACT
0.65
4-oxo-TEMPO
0.69
0
.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
E (V) vs. Ag/AgCl)
Under typical (basic) reaction conditions, TEMPO exhibits strong steric discrimination in its
reaction with alcohols, including the ability to achieve chemoselective oxidation of 1° alcohols
6
in the presence of unprotected 2° alcohols. This selectivity has been attributed to steric effects in
1
b
the formation of an alkoxide adduct with the oxoammonium species (Scheme 2, top pathway).
The selectivity changes when the reaction is performed under acidic conditions, wherein the
mechanism is proposed to involve bimolecular hydride transfer, which favors more electron-rich
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substrates (i.e., 2° > 1° alcohols). The reactions under the acidic conditions are typically
considerably slower than those under basic conditions, however.
+
Scheme 2. Proposed Mechanisms for TEMPO -Mediated Oxidation of Alcohols under Different
Conditions.
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basic conditions
H
O
N
–
HX
R
H
O
–
N+
O X–
N
OH
R
OH
R
O
X
O
HO
N
H
R
H
– HX
acidic conditions
Recently, significant advances in nitroxyl-catalyzed alcohol oxidation have been made
through the use of bicyclic nitroxyls, such as 2-azaadamantane N-oxyl (AZADO) and 9-
8
azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane N-oxyl (ABNO) (cf. Scheme 1C). These nitroxyls exhibit excellent
activity for the oxidation of both 1° and 2° alcohols, and their favorable catalytic properties are
primarily attributed to the reduced steric hindrance around the active nitroxyl/oxoammonium
site. Unfortunately, the cost and multi-step synthesis of these reagents constrain their use,
9
especially for large-scale applications.
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Building on our studies of nitroxyl (co-)catalyzed aerobic oxidation reactions, we recently
11
began exploring electrocatalytic reactions with nitroxyl mediators. Whereas TEMPO has been
4
,5
studied extensively as an electrocatalyst for alcohol oxidation, much less attention has been
4
g,8c
given to the bicyclic nitroxyls.
The mid-point potential (Emp) of the one-electron
nitroxyl/oxoammonium couple varies, depending on the nitroxyl structure (i.e., mono- vs
1
2
bicyclic) and/or substituents (Scheme 1C), but the effect of the nitroxyl redox potentials on
catalytic activity and their implications for chemical and electrochemical oxidation methods has
not been addressed. Here, we describe the electrocatalytic behavior of a series of bicyclic and
TEMPO-based nitroxyls. Free-energy correlations show that nitroxyl-catalyzed alcohol oxidation
rates under chemical vs. electrochemical conditions exhibit opposite trends with respect to the
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nitroxyl/oxoammonium redox potential. Mechanistic studies reveal the origin of this unexpected
inversion of activity, and the results have important implications for practical applications of
nitroxyl-based alcohol oxidation reactions. For example, the low-cost, readily accessible 4-
acetamido-TEMPO (ACT) outperforms the more-expensive bicyclic nitroxyls under
electrochemical conditions.
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Results and Discussion
Kinetic analysis of electrocatalytic oxidation of alcohols with different nitroxyls. Cyclic
voltammograms (CVs) of AZADO (a), ABNO (b), TEMPO (c), and ACT (d) reveal reversible
electron transfer under conditions similar to those commonly used for alcohol oxidation (Figure
1
A). In contrast, keto-ABNO and 4-oxo-TEMPO exhibit irreversible behavior under these basic
conditions (cf. trace e in Figure 1A), reflecting the instability of the corresponding
oxoammonium species. Keto-substituted oxoammonium species have been shown to be highly
1
3
susceptible to base-promoted ring opening. ACT exhibits the highest mid-point potential (Emp
=
0.65 V) among the four electrochemically reversible nitroxyls.
a$b$c$ d$e$
d$
b$
1
4$
A"
B"
7
5$
8
$
55$
2$
4$
c$
3
5$
5$
a$
!
1
e$
!
10$
!5$
0.1$
0.3$
0.5$
0.7$
0.9$
0.1$ 0.3$ 0.5$ 0.7$ 0.9$
E"(V)"vs."Ag/AgCl"
E"(V)"vs."Ag/AgCl"
Figure 1. Cyclic voltammograms of 1 mM AZADO (a), ABNO (b), TEMPO (c), ACT (d) and 4-
oxo-TEMPO (e) in the absence (left, A) and presence (right, B) of 50 mM 1-butanol in
-
2-
-1
3 3
HCO /CO electrolyte (pH 10), scan rate 50 mVs .
CVs of the nitroxyls were then reacquired with 50 mM 1-butanol present in the solutions
Figure 1B). The S-shaped CVs, showing a significant increase in the oxidation peak and a
(
disappearance of the reduction peak, are diagnostic of electrocatalysis, and the oxidation current
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is proportional to the catalytic turnovers that occur on the CV time scale. AZADO, ABNO and
TEMPO perform similarly, while ACT exhibits more than 2-fold higher catalytic current than the
other nitroxyls. No significant catalytic activity was observed for 4-oxo-TEMPO, reflecting the
instability of the oxoammonium species.
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To gain a more-quantitative comparison of the different nitroxyls, the electrocatalytic
reactions were evaluated by additional electrochemical studies. Representative
chronoamperograms (CAs) obtained with ABNO are shown in Figure 2. In the absence of
alcohol, the CA exhibits an exponential decay (curve a), consistent with diffusion-controlled
oxidation of the nitroxyl to the oxoammonium. The CA current increases upon addition of 1-
butanol, and the steady-state current is proportional to the square root of the alcohol
1
4
concentration (Figure 2 curves b-e). Similar studies were performed for each of the other
nitroxyls (AZADO, TEMPO and ACT) in order to compare their catalytic activities and TOFs
(see Figures S1-S4).
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2
0"
0"
0"
0"
50"
40"
30"
20"
10"
0"
A"
B"
Q=660µCꢀ
eꢀ
Q=420µCꢀ
Q=324µCꢀ
Q=240µCꢀ
dꢀ
cꢀ
bꢀ
R²"="1.00"
10"
0"
Q=100µCꢀ
aꢀ
0"
5"
10"
15"
0"
0.1"
0.2"
[1+butanol] /2"(M1/2)"
1
t"(s)"
Figure 2. (A) Chronoamperograms of ABNO (1 mM) in the absence (a) and presence of 1-
-
2-
butanol at 5 mM (b), 10 mM (c), 20 mM (d) and 50 mM (e) concentrations in HCO /CO
electrolyte (pH=10), and (B) a plot of current vs [1-butanol] with an applied potential 0.7 V vs.
Ag/AgCl.
3
3
1
/2
The difference between the current in the presence and absence of 1-butanol (i.e., curves b-e
vs. curve a in Figure 2) is directly proportional to the nitroxyl turnover frequency (TOF). The
TOFs for each of the four nitroxyls with a series of five different alcohols are presented in Table
1
2
. The alcohol substrates were selected as representative examples of 1° and 2° benzylic, 1° and
° aliphatic, and sterically hindered 1° aliphatic alcohols. The data show that ACT is nearly
always the most active catalyst. The only exception was evident in the oxidation of 2-butanol,
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but even in this case, the activity of ACT is comparable to ABNO and AZADO. TEMPO
exhibits the lowest activity in all cases, except for the oxidation of 1-butanol, for which AZADO
is the least active. Most significantly, the activity of ACT is much higher than expected from
8
recent literature reports that highlight the predominant role of steric effects.
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Table 1. TOF (h ) of different nitroxides for oxidation of alcohols
OH
OH
° benzylic
OH
OH
sterically
hindered1°
aliphatic
OH
1
2 ° benzylic 1° aliphatic
2 ° aliphatic
ABNO
AZADO 1128
TEMPO
ACT
1088
238
358
118
378
588
488
568
708
337
298
198
388
87
78
18
73
853
1228
Standard conditions for TOF determination: 50 mM
-
2-
alcohol, 1.0 mM nitroxyl, HCO /CO electrolyte (pH
3
3
1
0).
Analysis of pH effects on electrocatalytic oxidation of alcohols with different nitroxyls.
The advantageous performance of ACT relative to the bicyclic nitroxyls is even more evident
when ACT and ABNO are compared at different pH (Figure 3A). CVs were obtained for the
oxidation of 1-butanol by ACT reveal a significant increase in the catalytic current upon raising
the pH from 8 to 12 (dashed CVs, Figure 3A). ABNO activity is lower than the ACT activity
(solid CVs, Figure 3A), and while it increases upon raising the pH from 8 to 10, it then decreases
at pH 11 and 12. A comparison of the ACT and ABNO TOFs for five different alcohols at pH 9
and 11 is shown in Figures 3B and 3C. These data demonstrate the strong impact of pH on
catalyst activity, and show that increasing the pH significantly activates ACT, while it strongly
suppresses ABNO activity. The pH trend for ACT continues beyond pH 12, and TOFs reach
-
1
values above 1000 and 6000 h for 2-butanol and 1-butanol, respectively, at pH 13. The
effectiveness of ACT as an electrocatalyst was confirmed in bulk electrolysis experiments.
Electrochemical oxidation of each of the five alcohols were performed on 1 mmol scale at pH 10
with 2 mol% ACT, and the oxidized products were obtained in 88-98% yields within 2 h at room
1
5
temperature (Table 2). ABNO exhibits lower activity and is less stable under the same reaction
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conditions. For example, use of 2 mol% ABNO only achieves 47% conversion to benzaldehyde
prior to complete loss of catalytic activity.
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11"
1
9
0"
10"
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"
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8"
0
.5"V"
ꢀ
pH"9"
C" pH"11"
B"
2
000"
ABNO"
ACT"
1500"
1
000"
5
00"
0
"
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
Figure 3. (A) Cyclic voltammograms of ABNO (solid line) and ACT (dashed line) in the
presence of 50 mM 1-butanol at various pH values, scan rate 50mVs , (B) TOFs (h ) of ACT
and ABNO for oxidation of various alcohols; 1 mM ACT or ABNO, 50 mM alcohol in aqueous
carbonate buffers; 0.14 M NaHCO
M Na CO for pH 11.
-
1
-1
3
and 0.01 M Na
2
CO
3
3
for pH 9, 0.02 M NaHCO and (C) 0.13
2
3
a
Table 2. Bulk electrolysis data for ACT-mediated oxidation of alcohols
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
Reactant:
O
O
O
O
O
Product:
Time
OH
OH
2 h
88%
2 h
88%
2 h
98%
2 h
98%
2 h
95%
b
Yields
a
Conditions: 0.1 M alcohol in 10 mL aqueous carbonate
, 0.075 M Na CO (pH 10), 2
buffer, 0.075 M NaHCO
3
2
3
b
mol % ACT, electrolysis at 0.75 V vs Ag/AgCl. NMR
yields (int. std. = mesitylene).
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Several lines of evidence suggest that the decrease in electrocatalytic activity of ABNO
above pH 10 arises from its susceptibility to formation of an oxoammonium-hydroxide adduct,
+
ABNOOH (eq 1). Adducts of this type have been described previously for TEMPO at pH >
16
1
2, and ring-strain considerations can account for the increased susceptibility of bicyclic
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0
oxoammonium species to such adduct formation. Insights into this adduct formation were obtain
from CVs of ABNO at pH 9, 10, and 11, which show that the Emp shifts negative and the
reduction peak decreases upon increasing the pH (Figure 4A). These data and CVs at different
+
scan rates (Figure S5) indicate that ABNO undergoes a chemical reaction upon its
electrochemical generation at pH > 9. In contrast, CVs of ACT are unaffected by changes to the
+
solution pH (Figure 4B), indicating that ACT and ACT are stable under the voltammetry
conditions. Steric effects, as well as reduced ring strain, probably contribute to the enhanced
+
stability of ACT at high pH.
−
e−
OH−
−OH−
+
O−
(1)
N
N+
N+
O
O
OH
$11$10$9$
14$
A"
B"
AcNH
11$
N
10$
9$
8
$
$
N
O
O
2
!
4$
!
10$
0.1$
0.3$
0.5$
0.7$
0.1$
0.3$
0.5$
0.7$
0.9$
1.1$
E"(V)"vs."Ag/AgCl"
E(V)"vs."Ag/AgCl"
Figure 4. Cyclic voltammograms of ABNO (A) and ACT (B) from pH 9-11 (scan rate 50
-
1
mVs ).
Spectroelectrochemical analysis of ABNO oxidation at different pH. UV-visible
spectroelectrochemical studies complement the voltammetric data and support the hypothesis in
eq 1. Well-behaved isosbestic behavior is observed for the redox interconversion of
+
ABNO/ABNO at pH 8 (Figure 5). Near-isosbestic behavior is also observed at pH 10.2, but the
+
product, which is different from ABNO , corresponds to ABNOOH. Subsequent reduction of
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this species regenerates ABNO, consistent with reversible formation of the adduct (Figure 6). An
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-1
equilibrium constant of 3.7 x 10 M was derived for the formation of the ABNOOH from
+
–
ABNO and OH on the basis of the spectroelectrochemical data. At pH > 11, oxidation of
ABNO is less reversible, possibly reflecting decomposition of ABNOOH under these conditions
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(
Figure S6).
A)ꢀElectrooxidationꢀofꢀABNOꢀatꢀpHꢀ8.3ꢀ
1
.5#
A%
300#s#
0#s#
ABNO+#
4
#
1.2#
2#
0.9#
0.6#
0.3#
ABNO#
90#
0#
300#s#
0#
180#
270#
0
#s#
300#s#
t/s%
0.67 V
−
e−
N
N+
O
O
0#s#
0.0#
200#
250#
300#
350#
400#
Wavelength%(nm)%
+
B)ꢀElectroreductionꢀofꢀABNO ꢀatꢀpHꢀ8.3ꢀ
1.5#
B%
ABNO#
600#s#
4#
1.2#
300#s#
2#
0.9#
0.6#
0.3#
ABNO+#
370#
0#
300#s#
280#
300#s#
460#
t/s%
550#
600#s#
0
+e
.35 V
−
N
N+
O
O
6
00#s#
0.0#
200#
250#
300#
350#
400#
Wavelength/nm%
ꢀ
Figure 5. Spectroelectrochemical UV-vis data collected during oxidation of ABNO (A) for 300 s
+
(t = 0–300 s), immediately followed by reduction of the in situ generated ABNO (B) at for 300 s
+
(t = 300–600 s). Insets: Concentration profiles of ABNO and ABNO during electrochemical
oxidation (A) and reduction (B). Reaction conditions: 0.1 M HCO
-
3
electrolyte (pH 8.3);
oxidation performed at 0.7 V vs. Ag/AgCl and reduction at 0.3 V vs. Ag/AgCl; spectra recorded
every 6 s.
ꢀ
ꢀ
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A)ꢀElectrooxidationꢀofꢀABNOꢀatꢀpHꢀ10.2ꢀ
1.5#
A$
ABNO#
0#s#
4#
ABNOOH#
1.2#
0.9#
0.6#
2
#
ABNO+#
0#
0#
90#
180#
270#
t/s$
300#s#
250#
0
.65 V
+OH−
−OH
0
1
2
3
4
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7
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9
0
1
2
3
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9
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9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
0.3#
.0#
−
−
O
−
−
e
N+
N+
OH
N
O
O
0
2
00#
300#
350#
400#
Wavelength/nm$
+
B)ꢀElectroreductionꢀofꢀABNO /ABNOOHꢀatꢀpHꢀ10.2ꢀ
1.5#
ABNO#
B$
600#s#
4#
1.2#
0.9#
0.6#
0.3#
0.0#
2
#
ABNOOH#
ABNO+#
0#
2
80#
370#
460#
t/s$
550#
3
00#s#
0.25 V
e−
+OH−
+
O−
N
N+
−OH−
N+
O
O
OH
200#
250#
300#
Wavelength/nm$
350#
400#
ꢀ
Figure 6. Spectroelectrochemical UV-vis data collected during oxidation of ABNO (A) in
-
2-
HCO
3
/CO
3
electrolyte (pH 10.2) at 0.65 V vs. Ag/AgCl for 300 s (time interval = 6 s),
+
immediately followed by reduction of the in situ generated ABNO /ABNOOH (B) at 0.25 V vs.
Ag/AgCl for 300 s (time interval = 6 s). Insets: Concentration profiles of ABNO, ABNO and
ABNOOH during electrochemical oxidation (A) and reduction (B).
+
The above data provide a clear rationale for the enhanced activity of ACT relative to bicyclic
nitroxyls above pH 10, but we also sought to understand the excellent performance of ACT
below pH 10, where bicyclic oxoammonium-hydroxide adducts such as ABNOOH do not
+
interfere. Our initial hypothesis was that the high activity of ACT arises from its high reduction
potential (cf. Scheme 1C and Figure 1). Comparisons of TEMPO and bicyclic nitroxyl
8
derivatives are typically performed with chemical oxidants, such as bleach (NaOCl). In these
cases, high-potential nitroxyls (e.g., ACT) could undergo sluggish oxidation by the chemical
1
7
oxidant, thereby masking their intrinsic alcohol-oxidation reactivity. Low-potential nitroxyls,
such as AZADO and ABNO, will therefore experience a competitive advantage.
In situ monitoring of nitroxyl-catalyzed oxidation of 1-butanol by bleach. AZADO-,
ABNO-, TEMPO- and ACT-catalyzed oxidation of 1-butanol were analyzed with bleach as the
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oxidant. It was possible to monitor the distribution of catalyst oxidation states during the reaction
via cyclic chronoamperometry as an analytical technique. In these experiments, the potential at a
rotating disk electrode (RDE) was cycled between 180 mV above and 180 mV below the
midpoint potential (Emp) of the nitroxyl. The current measured at Emp + 180 mV is proportional to
the [nitroxyl], while the current at Emp – 180 mV is proportional to the [oxoammonium] (see
Figures 7 and S7).
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Before analyzing alcohol oxidation reactions, we probed the oxidation of the different
nitroxyls by bleach via the cyclic chronoamperometric method described above. Representative
data obtained during oxidation of TEMPO by bleach (in the absence of alcohol) is depicted in
+
Figure 7. The data show progressive conversion of TEMPO to TEMPO over 600 s. The traces
with positive current correspond to oxidation of TEMPO at 0.71 V vs. Ag/AgCl (Emp + 180 mV),
+
and the traces with negative current correspond to reduction of TEMPO at 0.25 V vs. Ag/AgCl
(Emp – 180 mV) [Emp (TEMPO) = 0.53 V]. Similar data were acquired for the four different
nitroxyls, AZADO, ABNO, TEMPO, and ACT, and the data show that different nitroxyls
undergo oxidation at significantly different rates (Figure 8). Their relative rates match the trend
expected from their redox potentials: AZADO > ABNO > TEMPO > ACT. Oxidation of ACT is
particularly slow, exhibiting a rate 60- and 7-fold slower than AZADO and ABNO, respectively,
at pH 8.3.
50$
A$
30$
10$
!
10$
!30$
50$
!
0$
100$
200$
300$
400$
500$
600$
600$
t"(s)"
50$
B$
C$
3
0$
0$
Anodic$Current$
1
!10$ 63$t"(s)"65$
67$
69$ 0$
200$
t"(s)"
400$
Cathodic Current
!
!
30$
50$
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Figure 7. (A) Representative cyclic chronoamperometric data for the oxidation of TEMPO by
bleach. (B) Expansion of the oxidation and reduction currents from a single cycle in plot A,
obtained from potential steps at 0.71 and 0.25 V vs. Ag/AgCl. (C) Plots of the faradaic anodic
(positive) and cathodic (negative) currents at each step in plot A (cf. plot B). (Pulse width = 3 s,
RDE rotation rate = 2000 rpm; initial concentrations: TEMPO 5.0 mM, NaOCl 0.2 M, 0.12 M
3
NaHCO ).
0
1
2
3
4
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7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
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7
8
9
0
1
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
5.0#
4.0#
3.0#
2.0#
1.0#
0.0#
AZADO+#
ACT#
ABNO+#
TEMPO+#
TEMPO#
ABNO#
ACT+#
AZADO#
200#
0#
400#
600# 0#
200#
400#
t,(s),
600#
t,(s),
Figure 8. Concentration profiles of nitroxyl and oxoammonium species (solid and dashed lines,
respectively) in the presence of bleach, derived from cyclic chronoamperometry. Reaction
conditions: 5.0 mM nitroxyl, 120 mM NaOCl, 150 mM NaHCO (pH 8.3).
3
1
Oxidation of 1-butanol by bleach was then examined by H NMR spectroscopy using the
same series of nitroxyls (Figure S8), and the results reveal that these reactions follow the same
rate trends observed for oxidation of the nitroxyls by bleach: AZADO > ABNO > TEMPO >
ACT. Cyclic chronoamperometry studies illuminate the origin of this trend. Data from the
AZADO-, ABNO-, TEMPO- and ACT-catalyzed alcohol oxidation reactions, shown in Figure 9,
+
+
reveal that AZADO and ABNO undergo rapid oxidation to AZADO and ABNO and that these
oxoammonium species are the predominant form of the catalyst during steady-state turnover. In
+
+
contrast, TEMPO and ACT convert more slowly to TEMPO and ACT , and they reach steady-
state concentrations of approximately 60% and 20%, respectively. A near-quantitative mass
balance of the oxommonium and nitroxyl species is detected under the different reaction
conditions, implying a negligible steady-state concentration of the hydroxylamine species. (The
hydroxylamine formed upon oxidation of the alcohol could undergo rapid oxidation to the
nitroxyl by direct reaction with the oxidant or via comproportionation with the oxoammonium
species.) Collectively, these observations reveal that the poor catalytic activity of ACT with
bleach as the oxidant arises from slow formation of the oxoammonium species (cf. Figure 8). In
the electrocatalytic reactions, the electrode potential is adjusted to match the redox potential of
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the nitroxyl catalyst. Therefore, the catalyst reoxidation rate is normalized for different nitroxyl
species and the catalytic rate reflects the intrinsic reactivity of the oxoammonium species with
alcohol. The excellent electrocatalytic performance of ACT under basic conditions is attributed
+
to the enhanced electrophilicity of the oxoammonium species ACT , which should favor
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formation of the alkoxide adduct in the "basic" alcohol oxidation pathway (cf. Scheme 2).
5
.0#
.0#
AZADO+#
ACT#
4
ABNO+#
3.0#
TEMPO+#
TEMPO#
2.0#
1.0#
0.0#
ABNO#
AZADO#
ACT+#
0#
200#
400#
600# 0#
200#
400#
t,(s),
600#
t,(s),
Figure 9. Concentration profiles of nitroxyl and oxoammonium species (solid and dashed lines,
respectively) in the oxidation of 1-butanol by bleach, derived from cyclic chronoamperometry.
Reaction conditions: 5.0 mM nitroxyl, 100 mM 1-butanol, 120 mM NaOCl, 150 mM NaHCO3
(pH 8.3).
Comparison of chemical and electrochemical nitroxyl-catalyzed alcohol oxidation. The
very different catalyst activity trends observed for the bleach- vs electrode-driven alcohol
oxidation reactions are depicted in the free-energy correlations in Figure 10. In addition to the
four nitroxyls investigated systematically above, three additional nitroxyls 1-Me-AZADO, 4-
2
MeO-TEMPO and 4-PhCO -TEMPO were tested under the same conditions. The bleach-driven
reactions (blue triangles) with the seven nitroxyl derivatives show a negative correlation with the
nitroxyl Emp values. This trend is attributed to the influence of the catalyst reoxidation step on the
overall rate: nitroxyls with lower Emp undergo more facile oxidation and are therefore more
effective catalysts. The non-linearity of the trend is perhaps expected, considering the turnover-
limiting step appears to change across this series of nitroxyls (cf. Figure 9) and/or because ring-
strain or steric effects could impact the relative rates for the reactions of nitroxyls with bleach.
On the other hand, the electrocatalytic reactions show a small, but positive, correlation with the
nitroxyl Emp, The best catalytic rates are obtained with TEMPO derivatives bearing an electron-
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1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
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withdrawing substitutent in the 4-position, which have the highest Emp values among the
nitroxyls studied. The trend clearly shows that the oxoammonium reduction potential is more
significant than steric effects in controlling the reaction rate. The 4-benzoyl derivative exhibits
the highest rate among the derivatives tested; however, the ester group is susceptible to
hydrolysis under basic conditions. ACT is much less susceptible to hydrolysis and therefore
represents a highly appealing low-cost electrocatalyst for alcohol oxidation.
0
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2
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3
4
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9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
Figure 10. Linear-free-energy correlations for nitroxyl-catalyzed oxidation of 1-butanol with
bleach (blue triangles) and under electrochemical conditions (red squares). See Figures S1-S4
and S8 for raw data.
Conclusion
The observations described herein provide extensive insights into the relative activity of
TEMPO and bicyclic nitroxyl derivatives, and they have important fundamental and practical
implications for this nitroxyl-catalyzed alcohol oxidation reactions. The higher activity of ACT
relative to AZADO and ABNO was unexpected, but it shows that increased driving force can
compensate for, and even overcome, steric effects in promoting the catalytic activity of nitroxyls.
2
ACT is one of the least expensive nitroxyl derivatives available, and it exhibits excellent
stability and activity over a broad pH range. The results described here bode well for expanded
+
use of ACT in catalytic applications that will leverage the widespread use of ACT (commonly
1
8
termed "Bobbitt's salt") as a stoichiometric reagent. The exceptional activity of ACT as an
electrochemical mediator, particularly at high pH, also provides an important foundation for
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development of scalable electrocatalytic applications of ACT, for example, via continuous-flow
electrolysis.
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
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Supporting Information: Experimental information, additional electrochemical, spectro-
electrochemical, and kinetic data. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at
http://pubs.acs.org.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*
stahl@chem.wisc.edu
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Financial support for this project was provided by the Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center
(DOE BER Office of Science DE-FC02-07ER64494).
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REFERENCES
(
1) For the first application of TEMPO-catalyzed alcohol oxidation and a comprehensive
survey, see: (a) Cella, J. A.; Kelley, J. A.; Kenehan, E. F. J. Org. Chem. 1975, 40, 1860. (b)
Bobbitt, J. M.; Brückner, C.; Merbouh, N. Org. React. 2010, 74, 103.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
(
(
2) For a review, see: Ciriminna, R.; Pagliaro, M. Org. Process Res. Dev. 2010, 14, 245.
3) For reviews, see: (a) de-Nooy, A. E. J.; Besemer, A. C.; van Bekkum, H., Synthesis 1996,
1
0, 1153. (b) Sheldon, R. A.; Arends, I. W. C. E. Adv. Synth. Catal. 2004, 346, 1051. (c) Tebben,
L.; Studer, A. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 5034. (d) Wertz, S.; Studer, A. Green Chem.,
013, 15, 3116. (e) Ryland, B. L.; Stahl, S. S. Angew. Chem,. Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 8824. (f) Cao, Q.;
2
Dornan, L. M.; Rogan, L.; Hughes, N. L.; Muldoon, M. J. Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 4524. (g)
Seki, Y.; Oisaki, K.; Kanai, M. Tetrahedron Lett. 2014, 55, 3738. (h) Miles, K. C.; Stahl, S. S.
Aldrichimica Acta 2015, 48, 8.
(
4) For leading references, see: (a) Semmelhack, M. F.; Chou, C. S.; Cortes, D. A. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 1983, 105, 4492. (b) Osa, T.; Kashiwagi, Y.; Mukai, K.; Oshawa A.; Bobbitt, J. M.
Chem. Lett. 1990, 19, 75. (c) Kashiwagi, Y.; Kurashima, F.; Kikuchi, C.; Anzai, J. Osa, T.;
Bobbitt, J. M. Tetrahedron Lett. 1999, 40, 6469. (d) Liaigre, D.; Breton, T.; Belgsir, E. M.
Electrochem. Commun. 2005, 7, 312. (e) Hill-Cousins, J. T.; Kuleshova, J.; Green, R. A.; Birkin,
P. R.; Pletcher, D.; Underwood, T. J.; Leach, S. G.; Brown, R. C. D. ChemSusChem 2012, 5,
326. (f) Green, R. A.; Hill-Cousins, J. T.; Brown, R. C. D.; Pletcher, D.; Leach, S. G.
Electrochim. Acta 2013, 113, 550. (g) Hickey, D. P.; McCammant, M. S.; Giroud, F.; Sigman,
M. S.; Minteer, S. D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 15917. (h) Rafiee, M.; Karimi, B.; Alizadeh,
S. ChemElectroChem 2014, 1, 455. (i) Cha, H. G.; Choi, K.-S. Nat. Chem. 2015, 7, 328. (j)
Hickey, D. P.; Milton, R. D.; Chen, D.; Sigman, M. S.; Minteer, S. D. ACS Catal., 2015, 5, 5519
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(
(
5) For a review, see Ciriminna, R.; Palmisano, G.; Pagliaro, M. ChemCatChem 2015, 7, 552.
6) Numerous examples are included in the reviews in ref. 3. See also: (a) Siedlecka, R.;
Skarzewski, J.; Młochowski, J. Tetrahedron Lett. 1990, 31, 2177. (b) de Nooy, A. E. J.;
Besemer, A. C.; van Bekkum, H. Tetrahedron 1995, 51, 8023. (b) Hoover, J. M.; Stahl, S. S. J.
Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 16901.
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53
54
55
56
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58
59
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(
(
7) Bailey, W. F.; Bobbitt, J. M.; Wiberg, K. B. J. Org. Chem. 2007, 72, 4504.
8) For leading references, see refs. 3e and 3h and the following: (a) Graetz, B.; Rychnovsky,
S.; Leu, W.-H.; Farmer, P.; Lin, R. Tetrahedron Asymm. 2005, 16, 3584. (b) Shibuya, M.;
Tomizawa, M.; Suzuki, I.; Iwabuchi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 8412. (c) Demizu, Y.;
Shiigi, H.; Oda, T.; Matsumura, Y.; Onomura, O. Tetrahedron Lett. 2008, 49, 48. (d) Kuang, Y.;
Rokubuichi, H.; Nabae, Y.; Hayakawa, T.; Kakimoto, M.-a. Adv. Synth. Catal. 2010, 352, 2635.
(
e) Shibuya, M.; Osada, Y.; Sasano, Y.; Tomizawa, M.; Iwabuchi, Y. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011,
1
33, 6497. (f) Steves, J. E.; Stahl, S. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 15742. (g) Lauber, M. B.;
Stahl, S. S. ACS Catal. 2013, 3, 2612. (h) Sasano, Y.; Nagasawa, S.; Yamazaki, M.; Shibuya,
M.; Park, J.; Iwabuchi, Y. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 3236.
(
9) Prompted by a reviewer request, we provide the cost for 1 mmol of the commercially
available nitroxyls considered in this study (prices reflect the lowest available cost from Sigma-
Aldrich at http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/; accessed Sept. 11, 2015). TEMPO ($0.83), ACT
($0.96), 4-MeO-TEMPO ($5.69), 4-oxo-TEMPO ($7.14), 4-PhCO
$32.76), AZADO ($155.64), 1-Me-AZADO ($328.68). The cost of individual nitroxyls will of
course depend upon the scale of production.
2
-TEMPO ($16.81), ABNO
(
(10) See refs. 3d, 3g, 8f, 8g and the following: Xie, X.; Stahl, S. S. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015,
37, 3767.
1
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5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
(
(
11) Gerken, J. B.; Stahl, S. S. ACS Cent. Sci. 2015, 1, 234.
12) For redox potentials of diverse nitroxyls, see ref. 8g and the following: (a) Shchukin. G. I.;
Ryabinin, V. A.; Grigorev, I. A.; Volodarskii, L. B.; J. Gen. Chem. U.S.S.R, 1985, 56, 753. (b)
Bobbitt, J. M.; Flores, M. C. L. Heterocycles, 1988, 27, 509. (c) Shibuya, M.; Pichierri, F.;
Tomizawa, M.; Nagasawa, S.; Suzuki, I.; Iwabuchi, Y. Tetrahedron Lett. 2012, 53, 2070.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
(
(
13) Golubev, V. A.; Sen’, V. D. Russ. J. Org. Chem. 2011, 47, 869.
14) The rate of the catalytic reaction can be derived from the following equation.
1
/2
I
cat = nFAC
N
(D
are the bulk concentrations of nitroxide and
alcohol, and n, F, and A denote the number of electrons, Faraday constant and the electrode
A obs A
k C )
I
N A
cat represents the catalytic current, C and C
-
6
2 -1
surface area respectively. The amount of 5.0×10 cm s has been considered as the diffusion
coefficient (D ) of all alcohols. See ref. 4h and the following: Costentin, C.; Drouet, S.; Robert,
M.; Savéant, J.-M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 11235.
15) The results in Table 2 are included to demonstrate that ACT can serve as an effective
A
(
electrocatalytic mediator under bulk electrolysis conditions. Ongoing studies are focused on
optimizing these conditions for synthetic applications, including consideration of the preferred
electrochemical apparatus and the substrate scope and functional group compatibility.
(
16) (a) Golubev, V. A.; Sen, V. D.; Rozantsev, É. G. Bull. Acad. Sci. USSR 1979, 28, 1927.
(b) Fish, J. R.; Swarts, S. G.; Sevilla, M. D.; Malinski, T. J. Phys. Chem. 1988, 92, 3745.
17) For relevant examples, see ref. 12c and the following: Hamada, S.; Furuta, T.; Wada, Y.;
(
Kawabata, T. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 8093.
(18) Mercadante, M. A.; Kelly, C. B.; Bobbitt, J. M.; Tilley, L. J.; Leadbeater, N. E. Nat.
Protoc. 2013, 8, 666.
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TOC Graphic
O
O
NH
OH
R2
N+
R
R
>>"
R1
R1
N
O
N
k2
O
O
OH
R2
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N
R
R
4
0 µA
.5 V
0
pH=8
pH=9
pH=10
pH=11
pH=12
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