Characteristics of dioxins and metals emission from radwaste plasma arc melter system

Article abstract of DOI:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.05.035

This study investigated the emission characteristics of PCDD/Fs and the partitioning of three heavy metals (Cd, Hg and Pb) and two radioactive metal surrogates (Co and Cs) in a radwaste plasma arc melter system. Typical mixtures of low-level radioactive wastes were simulated as the trial burn surrogate wastes. The emission of PCDD/Fs and the partitioning of the metals were strongly influenced by the feed waste stream and melter operating temperature, respectively. The emissions of PCDD/Fs, cadmium and lead were greatly enhanced when the polyvinyl chloride was included in the feed waste stream. Most of the nonvolatile cobalt partitioned into the glass. A significant quantity of cesium, cadmium and lead was vaporized during the highest melter temperature test. A lower melter temperature resulted in more cesium, cadmium and lead species remaining in the glass. The results of this study suggest that wet scrubbing as well as a low-temperature two-step fine filtration, or both of them together could not effectively capture the gas-phase or fine particle phase PCDD/Fs and mercury species. In order to effectively treat low-level radioactive waste streams, the tested high-temperature melter should include an adsorption system, which could collect the gas-phase PCDD/Fs and mercury species.

Full text of DOI:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.05.035

Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere
Characteristics of dioxins and metals emission
q
from radwaste plasma arc melter system
*
Hee-Chul Yang , Joon-Hyung Kim
Nuclear Fuel Cycle R&D Group, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, 150 Dukjin-dong,
Yuseong-gu, Daejon 305-353, Korea
Received 9 October 2001; received in revised form 25 May 2004; accepted 25 May 2004
Abstract
This study investigated the emission characteristics of PCDD/Fs and the partitioning of three heavy metals (Cd, Hg
and Pb) and two radioactive metal surrogates (Co and Cs) in a radwaste plasma arc melter system. Typical mixtures of
low-level radioactive wastes were simulated as the trial burn surrogate wastes. The emission of PCDD/Fs and the par-
titioning of the metals were strongly influenced by the feed waste stream and melter operating temperature, respectively.
The emissions of PCDD/Fs, cadmium and lead were greatly enhanced when the polyvinyl chloride was included in the
feed waste stream. Most of the nonvolatile cobalt partitioned into the glass. A significant quantity of cesium, cadmium
and lead was vaporized during the highest melter temperature test. A lower melter temperature resulted in more cesium,
cadmium and lead species remaining in the glass. The results of this study suggest that wet scrubbing as well as a low-
temperature two-step fine filtration, or both of them together could not effectively capture the gas-phase or fine particle
phase PCDD/Fs and mercury species. In order to effectively treat low-level radioactive waste streams, the tested high-
temperature melter should include an adsorption system, which could collect the gas-phase PCDD/Fs and mercury
species.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Plasma arc melter; PCDD/F; Hazardous metal; Radioactive metal; Emission; Partitioning
1
. Introduction
processing radioactive waste materials, providing those
attributes. In addition, a high temperature plasma melt-
ing process has the potential of offering a hazardous
organics destruction alternative to incineration with
a decreased formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-
p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The in-
tense heat of the plasma destroys organic contaminants
and melts the inorganics into a molten ceramic slag
Nuclear industries usually have to deal with the prob-
lems of radioactive waste for disposal. Because of space
limitations, maximum volume reduction is desired and a
stable, leach resistant final waste form is needed. Plasma
arc melter systems have been shown to be capable of
(Wagner, 1997).
One of the criticisms of a high-temperature melter is
q
Presented at Dioxin 2001.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 868 2575; fax: +82 868
*
that volatile metals are not retained in the slag phase of
a melter. Other important criticism is the formation of
PCDD/Fs during the cooling of high-temperature melter
2329.
E-mail address: nhcyang@kaeri.re.kr (H.-C. Yang).
0
045-6535/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.05.035

422
H.-C. Yang, J.-H. Kim / Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
flue gas. The hazardous metals in the plasma arc melter
feed stream are partitioned between the bottom slag
stream, and a flue gas stream containing the suspended
fly ash and the vapors of volatile elements or com-
pounds. A further partitioning of the flue gas stream
takes place in the particulate emission control devices
that effectively capture larger fly ash particles but are less
efficient for the vapor-phase or fine particle phase metals
and PCDD/Fs (Barton et al., 1990).
and to optimize the operating conditions to minimize
the PCDD/Fs and hazardous/radioactive metal
emissions.
2. Test and data analysis
2.1. Plant description
The public has become increasingly concerned with
the mobilization of radioactive or hazardous metals
to the environment from the radwaste treatment sys-
tem. For the successful application of the plasma arc
melter system to the radioactive waste, a system capa-
ble of treating waste materials from the nuclear indus-
try including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), inorganic and
organic resins, cement, and steel, etc. is needed. This
work investigated the emission characteristics of
PCDD/Fs, and three hazardous metals (Cd, Hg and
Pb) and two radioactive metals (Co and Cs) from a
pilot-scale plasma arc melter system, which was devel-
oped for the treatment of radioactive waste from
nuclear power plants. Trial burn tests using a simulated
radioactive waste stream were performed to obtain the
emission characteristics of PCDD/Fs and the partition-
ing characteristics of hazardous or radioactive metals
with respect to the operating condition. The primary
purpose of this work is to improve the system design
The process flow diagram of the tested plasma arc
melter plant is shown in Fig. 1. The plasma arc melter
plant (HJ-200) consists of a graphite-electrode arc mel-
ter with a capacity of about 200 kg/h for inorganic mate-
rials and about 100 kg/h for combustible organics, a
thermal oxidizer, and an off-gas treatment system
(Quapp et al., 1999). The thermal oxidizer is installed
on the top of the melter in order to complete the com-
bustion of the products of an incomplete combustion
and the destruction of volatile organic constituents.
The off-gas quenching system rapidly cools the thermal
oxidizer exhaust gas to about 80 °C. A scrubber solution
contacts with the exhaust gas in the quench chamber,
atomizer, and scrubber thereby scrubbing the particulate
and soluble gases from the gas stream. The exhaust gas
exiting the mist eliminator is heated to about 120 °C in
order to avoid water vapor condensation. Cleaned flue
gas finally passes through a pre-filter and two HEPA
(high efficiency particulate air) filters in series.
Stack
Off-Gas Fans
Filter Housing(Three Parallel Paths)
Radiation
Monitor
S-3
Downstream
HEPA
Upstream
HEPA
Preheated air
Pre-Filter
Filter
Filter
Continuous
Emissions
Monitor
S-1
Scrubber
Mist
Eliminator
Thermal
Oxidizer
Atomizer
S-2
Cyclone
Separator
Combustion air
Natural gas
Electrode
Oxygen
Waste Feed
Melt Pot
Quench
Tank
Scrubber
Tank
Molten Glass
Molten Metal
Sludge
Tank
Evaporation processing
Fig. 1. Process flow diagram of tested plasma arc melter system.

H.-C. Yang, J.-H. Kim / Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
2.2.3. Metal partitioning test and analysis
423
2
2
.2. Trial burn test methods
Inactive cobalt (Co-59) and cesium (Cs-133) were
used as surrogates for radioactive Co-60 and Cs-137,
respectively. Cadmium, lead and mercury were used as
important hazardous metals. Chemical formulae of the
used sample metal compounds are shown in Table 1.
Powdered samples of the metal compounds were spiked
into the feed waste streams. Sampling locations for the
metal partitioning tests are shown in Fig. 2. During
the metal partitioning tests (T-2, T-3 and T-4 tests in
Table 1), particulate and gaseous metals in the process
of the off-gas streams were sampled using three identical
EPA-type multiple metal sampling trains at three sam-
.2.1. Model waste
Trial burn test conditions are summarized in Table 1.
Typical kinds of low-level radioactive wastes from
nuclear power plants were used as the trial burn surro-
gate wastes. The wastes were categorized into combusti-
bles, noncombustible, and cemented resin. Combustibles
were composed of PVC (15.6%), polyethylene (40.6%),
and cellulose materials (43.8%), such as paper and rub-
ber. Noncombustibles were composed of iron (2.6%),
concrete (7.7%), air filter (20.5%), glass (33.3%) and soil
(
(
(
35.9%). Cemented resin was composed of cement
65.6%), water (15.0%) and organic ion-exchange resin
19.4%).
1 2 3
pling locations (S , S and S ). From the measured con-
centration of each metal species at each sampling
location, metal partitioning into the waste glass, the
scrubber liquid and the HEPA filter were determined as
2
.2.2. PCDD/Fs emission test
As shown in Table 1, all kinds of surrogate wastes
M
M
M
WG ¼ M
T
À MS1
ð1Þ
ð2Þ
ð3Þ
with the simulated real radioactive waste composition
were fed for the PCDD/Fs emission test (T-1 test). The
waste feeding started with the combustibles, followed
by the noncombustibles, and cemented resins. A total
of 736 kg of waste was treated during the T-1 test for
SL ¼ MS1 À MS2
HF ¼ MS2 À MS3
1
5 h. The averaged concentrations of PCDD/Fs in the
where MT is the total mass of the spiked metal, MWG,
MSL, MHF are the quantities of the metal remaining
in the waste glass, that was collected by the scrubber
stack emission were measured during the treatment of
each typical waste stream.
Table 1
Test conditions for PCDD/Fs emission and metals partitioning in the plasma arc melter plant
Test no. Waste/feed
quantity
Melter
temperature temperature
Thermal oxidizer Spiking
materials
Sampling/
analysis
Testing
time
(h)
(compositions)
(°C)
(°C)
900–1000
T-1
T-2
Combustibles/176 kg
(noncombustibles:
1000–1300
Emission
of PCDD/Fs
15
200 kg, cemented
resin: 120 kg)
Combustibles/192 kg
(PE: 40.6%, PVC: 15.6%,
Paper and Cloth: 43.8%)
1220–1700
1200–1600
1000–1300
1000–1600
900–1000
900–1000
CoO: 1452 g
CsCl: 1041 g
PbO: 300 g
Partitioning and
emission of spiked
metals
17.5
2
HgCl : 376 g
CdO: 300 g
T-3
T-4
Noncombustibles/440 kg
(Iron: 2.6%, Concrete: 7.7%,
Air filter: 20.5%,
CoO: 968 g
CsCl: 694 g
PbO: 1000 g
Partitioning and
emission of spiked
metals
16
12
Glass: 33.3%, Sand/soil: 35.9%)
2
HgCl : 1254 g
CdO: 200 g
Cemented ion-exchange
resin/530 kg (Cement:
CoO: 968 g
CsCl: 694 g
PbO: 200 g
Partitioning and
emission of spiked
metals
65.6%, Water: 15.0%,
Resin: 19.4%)
2
HgCl : 251 g
CdO: 200 g

424
H.-C. Yang, J.-H. Kim / Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
MS3 S3
Thermal S1 Quencher
oxidizer
S2
HEPA
filter
Scrubber
Cyclone
Demister
Feed
waste
Melter
Waste
MT
Scrubber
liquid (MSL )
glass (MWG
)
Fig. 2. Sampling locations for flue gas (S
1 2 3
, S and S ) for determination of metals partitioning in the waste glass (MWG), scrubber
liquid (MSL) and emission (MS3) in the tested plasma arc melter system.
system and the HEPA filter system, respectively, and
M , M , M are the total masses of the metal in the
One criticism is that the tested condition could not rep-
resent the worst-case condition. Although the tempera-
ture of each combustion chamber could represent the
worst-case scenario of the organics destruction and the
chlorinated organic emission, other operating para-
meters could not represent the worst-case condition of
organic destruction. Air pollution control equipment
(APCE) operation parameters closely associated with
the PCDD/Fs production (Dickson et al., 1992) were
maintained within the normal operating ranges. The flue
gas from the thermal oxidizer at about 1000 °C was rap-
idly cooled to below 200 °C by quenching. The inlet tem-
peratures for the HEPA filters, which are the available
particulate hold-up areas for PCDD/Fs formation (Stie-
glitz et al., 1991; Gullet and Raguhunathan, 1997), were
maintained to be about 120 °C. Since the formation of
PCDD/Fs has been confirmed experimentally in the tem-
perature range 250–450 °C (Tuppuanien et al., 1998), it
was believed that APCE operating conditions during the
PCDD/Fs emission tests were good for limiting the pro-
duction of PCDD/Fs. This was the reason why the tested
condition could not represent the worst-case scenario of
PCDD/Fs emission. The other criticism is that 10% of
the current emission standard is not enough for the
developing thermal plant, since the PCDD/Fs emission
standard will become severe in Korea. It is generally re-
commended in Korea that the developing thermal plants
should satisfy the proposed future emission limit of 0.1
S1
S2
S3
1 2 3
flue at the sampling locations S , S and S , respectively.
3
. Results and discussion
3
.1. PCDD/Fs emission
Measured PCDD/Fs concentrations are shown in
Table 2. The total emissions of PCDD/Fs were in the
3
range of 0.45–0.20 ng TEQ/Nm . These concentrations
are temporarily satisfactory because they are below the
regulated emission limit of PCDD/Fs in Korea (5 ng
3
TEQ/Nm ), considering that the tested condition could
be considered as the worst-case conditions for chlorin-
ated organics emission. The operating temperatures of
the melter are very wide and in the range of about
1
000–1700 °C, at which temperatures the melter can de-
stroy organics and melt inorganics. During the PCDD/Fs
emission test, the operation temperature of the melter
was maintained at relatively low temperature ranges
(
1000–1300 °C), which could represent the worst-case
condition for the organics destruction and the chlori-
nated organics emission. The operating temperatures of
the thermal oxidizer are also in the low temperature
range of 900–1000 °C, at which temperatures the destruc-
tion of unburned hydrocarbon in the flue gas is relatively
inefficient. In addition, rubbers such as gloves and shoes
were removed from the feed waste stream, since they in-
clude a significant quantity of sulfur, which is known as a
PCDD/Fs inhibitor (Tuppuanien et al., 1998). Among
three waste mixtures, combustibles were considered as
the worst-case mixtures for PCDD/Fs emission, since
they includes the largest amount of organic chlorines.
The measured PCDD/Fs concentrations for worst-
case conditions were in the range within 10% of the cur-
rent regulated emission standard in Korea. However,
there have been some arguments as to whether the meas-
ured PCDD/Fs emission values are satisfactory or not.
3
ng TEQ/Nm (Yoon, 2003). These critical discussions
suggest that the developed radwaste plasma plant of this
study should include some additional off-gas system
equipment. As described in the section of the plant
description, the off-gas system includes a quenching
and wet scrubbing system, and a two-step fine HEPA fil-
tration system. It was suggested that wet scrubbing and
a low-temperature two-step fine filtration, or both of
them together could not effectively collect the gas-phase
PCDD/Fs generated from the high-temperature plasma
arc melter. It was therefore concluded that another type
of APCE such as an adsorption system, which could col-

H.-C. Yang, J.-H. Kim / Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
425
Table 2
Measured real dioxin emission concentrations (12% O
2
basis)
3
Emission concentration (ng TEQ/Nm )-12% O
2
basis
a
b
c
Combustibles
Noncombustibles
Cemented resin
PCDF
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
,3,7,8-TCDF
,2,3,7,8-PeCDF
,3,4,7,8-PeCDF
0.012
0.010
0.015
0.010
0.017
0.025
0.006
0.000
0.012
0.134
0.007
0.006
0.010
0.006
0.009
0.013
0.000
0.000
0.006
0.045
0.008
0.007
0.010
0.007
0.009
0.011
0.000
0.000
0.006
0.042
,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDF
,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDF
,3,4,6,7,8-HxCDF
,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDF
,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF
,2,3,4,7,8,9-HpCDF
OCDF
PCDD
2
1
1
1
1
1
,3,7,8-TCDD
0.004
0.004
0.003
0.005
0.006
0.038
0.146
0.002
0.004
0.004
0.006
0.004
0.018
0.059
0.002
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.001
0.020
0.071
,2,3,7,8-PeCDD
,2,3,4,7,8-HxCDD
,2,3,6,7,8-HxCDD
,2,3,7,8,9-HxCDD
,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD
OCDD
Total PCDFs
Total PCDDs
Total (PCDDs + PCDFs)
a
0.241
0.206
0.447
0.102
0.097
0.199
0.099
0.101
0.200
Combustibles (PE: 40.6%, PVC: 15.6%, Cellulose: 43.8%).
b
c
Noncombustibles (Iron: 2.6%, Concrete: 7.7%, Air filter: 20.5%, Glass: 33.3%, Sand/soil: 35.9%).
Cemented ion-exchange resin (Cement: 65.6%, Water: 15.0%, Organic resin: 19.4%).
lect gaseous contaminants, should be installed to reduce
the emissions of PCDD/Fs under the proposed future
Fs concentration in the stack emission was measured
3
to be 0. 022 ng TEQ/Nm . This result suggests that
3
emission limit of 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm .
when the chlorinated organics such as PVC are fed, a
significant quantity of PCDD/Fs could be formed in
the downstream of a high-temperature melter flue gas,
even if the APCE operating conditions are limiting for
PCDD/Fs production. When noncombustibles and ce-
mented resins were melted, PCDD/Fs emission concen-
The emission concentrations of PCDD/Fs with re-
spect to the feed waste stream are compared in Fig. 3.
When combustible organics, which include 15.6% of
the PVC by weight, were test-burned, averaged PCDD/
3
trations remained at 0.012 and 0.014 ng TEQ/Nm ,
respectively. Although noncombustibles and cemented
resins do not include chlorines as a major constituent,
the emissions of PCDD/Fs for those waste streams were
not much lower than that for the combustibles including
PVC. This suggests that some chlorines might deposit
somewhere in the off-gas system during PVC combus-
tion and they can be re-entrained to form gas-phase or
fine particle phase PCDD/Fs when the noncombustibles
or nonchlorinated wastes are treated.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.009
.008
.007
.006
.005
.004
.003
.002
.001
.000
combustibles
non-combustibles
cemented resins
3.2. Metal emission
Based on the analyzed metal concentration at each
sampling location, the overall partitioning of the metals
in different secondary waste steams was calculated to be
100% by Eqs. (1)–(3) and the results are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. PCDD/Fs emissions from simulated samples of the
typical feed waste stream from nuclear power plant.

426
H.-C. Yang, J.-H. Kim / Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
Fig. 4. Partitioning of hazardous metals and radioactive metal surrogates in the plasma arc melter plant.
3
.2.1. Radioactive metal
Most of the cobalt partitioned into the glass and the
spect to the operating condition resulted mainly from
the difference in the gas turbulence due to the differences
in the organics feed rates.
minor fraction entrained was efficiently collected in the
off-gas system. Cobalt oxide (CoO) is known as a stable
oxide in the presence of chlorine at the high tempera-
tures tested (Yang et al., 1998). It is therefore suggested
that the entrained fraction of cobalt was the particulate
entrainment. It can also be stated that the difference in
the entrained fraction of the particulate cobalt with re-
The partitioning of cesium varied noticeably with the
testing condition. As shown in Fig. 4 over 50% of the ce-
sium fed remained in the waste glass during the high-
temperature metal test (T-2). The lower temperatures
of the tests (T-3 and T-4) resulted in more cesium species
remaining in the glass. The collection of entrained ce-

H.-C. Yang, J.-H. Kim / Chemosphere 57 (2004) 421–428
427
sium species by the wet off-gas system (quencher, hydro-
sonic scrubber, cyclone and demister in series) was about
Wet scrubbing, as well as low-temperature fine filtration,
or even both of them together could not effectively cap-
ture the volatilized mercury species.
9
5% and that by the HEPA filter (high efficiency partic-
ulate air) was about 96%. As in the case of three tested
hazardous metals, the collection of the condensed fine
cesium species by the scrubber system and HEPA filter
system was not effective.
4
. Conclusion
The results of PCDD/Fs and metals emission tests for
3
.2.2. Hazardous metals
As shown in Fig. 4, the partitioning characteristics of
a radwaste plasma arc melter system will be used to im-
prove the system design and limit the operating condi-
tions to minimize their emissions. When PVC was fed
into the high-temperature melter, a significant quantity
of PCDD/Fs, cadmium and lead was emitted. Wet
scrubbing with rapid quenching, as well as a low-
temperature two-step fine filtration, or both of them to-
gether cannot effectively control the volatile metal
species and gas-phase PCDD/Fs. Considering that radi-
oactive waste streams include volatile trace metals and
radionuclides as well as organic and inorganic chlorines,
an appropriate adsorption system for the collection
of volatile trace metals and PCDD/Fs, such as an acti-
vated carbon bed, should be installed into the off-gas
system for the tested plasma arc melter system. The re-
moval of PVC from the feed waste stream must also
be effective to reduce the emissions of the PCDD/Fs,
cadmium and lead species. However, since the volatility
of the cesium and mercury is great in the absence of feed
chlorines, an appropriate absorption system should be
installed to reduce the emission of the cesium and mer-
cury species.
cadmium in the same trial burn conditions were quite
similar to that of lead. As shown in Table 1, cadmium
and lead were fed in the form of their stable oxides
(
PbOand CdO). These stable oxides can easily be trans-
formed into their relatively more volatile chlorides
PbCl and CdCl ) in the presence of chlorine. The
(
2
2
retention of cadmium and lead in the melter was greatest
for the T-3 test. Less than 10% of the spiked cadmium
and lead remained during the T-3 test. Considering that
the melter-operating temperatures were relatively high
(
1200–1600 °C), it was suggested that this higher reten-
tion in the melter resulted from the interaction between
the spiked metals and fed sand or soil. Interaction be-
tween the oxides of lead and cadmium and the alumi-
num silicates in the sand or soil could form stable
metal–mineral complexes such as PbAl
CdAl Si , which are known as extremely low-volatil-
ity metal–mineral compounds (Linak and Wendt,
993). Over 40% of the spiked cadmium and lead species
2 2 8
Si O and
2
2 8
O
1
were entrained in the off-gas system during the T-2 test.
This lower retention of the cadmium and lead species
could be explained by the chlorination of the cadmium
and lead species. The feed waste stream for the T-2 test
contained 15.6% PVC by mass. The interaction between
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Programs Division. pp. 50.