Correlation of metal spin state with catalytic reactivity: Polymerizations mediated by α-diimine-iron complexes

Article abstract of DOI:10.1002/anie.200502985

The mechanism of styrene polymerization by α-diimine iron complexes correlates with the metal spin state of the catalyst. Experimental and theoretical studies indicate that high-spin catalysts are halogenophilic, resulting in atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), while intermediate-spin complexes are carbophilic giving rise to catalytic chain transfer (CCT, see graph). (Graph Presented)

Full text of DOI:10.1002/anie.200502985

Angewandte
Chemie
Homogeneous Catalysis
DOI: 10.1002/anie.200502985
Correlation of Metal Spin State with Catalytic
Reactivity: Polymerizations Mediated by
a-Diimine–Iron Complexes**
Michael P. Shaver, Laura E. N. Allan, Henry S. Rzepa,
and Vernon C. Gibson*
It has long been recognized that the metal spin state plays a
central role in the reactivity of important biomolecules such
as the heme-based metalloproteins.[1–5] In nonbiological
systems the connection between metal spin state and reac-
tivity, especially in catalysis, has remained largely undevel-
oped. Herein, we describe a homogeneous catalytic system in
which closely related iron complexes with differing metal spin
states afford starkly contrasting mechanistic outcomes in
catalytic polymerization, to our knowledge the first time such
distinct catalytic reaction pathways have been delineated for
metal spin state isomers outside a biological manifold.
Four-coordinate a-diimine iron complexes [R(N,N)FeCl2]
R
=
ꢀ
=
( (N,N) = RN CH CH NR) have previously been shown to
be active as atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP)
catalysts for the controlled polymerization of styrene.[6,7] In
our initial studies, we were surprised to find that ATRP
predominates in reactions catalyzed by alkylimine derivatives
whereas those catalyzed by arylimine complexes give rise to
polymers in which catalytic chain transfer (CCT) is dominant.
Atom transfer radical polymerization is a versatile and
increasingly exploited methodology for the synthesis of novel
materials by controlled radical polymerization.[8] It involves a
dynamic equilibrium between growing and dormant polymer
chains using a metal-mediated halogen-exchange process. By
ensuring the equilibrium is shifted towards the dormant
species, radical concentrations remain low, reducing bimolec-
ular termination and generating polymers with well-defined
molecular weights that increase linearly with conversion. If
the organoradicals are trapped by the FeII complex, then an
organometallic species is generated which can undergo a b-
hydrogen elimination reaction to give short chain, olefin-
terminated oligomers, with molecular weights largely inde-
pendent of conversion. This process is termed catalytic chain
transfer.
[*] Dr. M. P. Shaver, L. E. N. Allan, Prof. H. S. Rzepa, Prof. V. C. Gibson
Department of Chemistry
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine
London, SW72AZ (UK)
Fax: (+44)20-7594-5810
E-mail: v.gibson@ic.ac.uk
[**] The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council of the
United Kingdom and the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada are thanked for funding.
Supporting information for this article is available on the WWW
under http://www.angewandte.org or from the author.
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The observed polymerization mechanism is determined
halogenophilic reactivity of each species. To probe the
relative carbophilicity of [R(N,N)FeCl2] complexes, the
mono-benzyl FeIII complexes, [R(N,N)FeBnCl2] (Bn =
CH2Ph), were targeted. Addition of BnMgCl at ꢀ788C to 1
produced an immediate color change from yellow to deep
purple, and [Cy(N,N)FeCl2] was isolated from the reaction
mixture. GC analysis of the reaction products indicated the
formation of bibenzyl (Bn2, PhCH2CH2Ph) via the coupling of
two alkyl radicals formed from the reductive alkylation of 1.
Similarly, alkylation of 2 produced bibenzyl at very low
temperatures. The iron–carbon bond is unstable, generating
carbon radicals in solution which couple to form the observed
product.
by the competition between the equilibria shown in
Figure 1,[9] which may be viewed as arising from the differing
halogenophilicities and carbophilicities of the FeII species,
The reaction of 3 with BnMgCl at ꢀ788C produced a
markedly different result. GC analysis, after hydrolysis,
showed that toluene was the major product, not bibenzyl.
Upon warming the solution to ꢀ208C, a green-black to red
color change coincided with the formation of bibenzyl, now
the major decomposition product. The radical coupling occurs
at a much higher temperature, implying that the alkyl
complexes have improved stability. The graph in Figure 2
Figure 1. Equilibria involved in ATRP versus CCT polymerization
(ATRP=atom transfer radical polymerization, CCT=catalytic chain
transfer).
where halogenophilicity and carbophilicity can be defined as
the relative predilection for a complex to form metal–halogen
and metal–carbon bonds, respectively. In ATRP, an equilib-
rium is established between FeII dichloride and FeIII trichlor-
ide complexes. The propensity for FeII complexes to react
with a chloroalkane to form the oxidized species and a carbon
radical is a function of its halogenophilicity. One mechanism
by which catalytic chain transfer may occur involves the
formation of a metal–carbon bond, followed by b-hydrogen
elimination to generate an alkene-terminated polymer chain.
If such a mechanism were operating, it would imply the
presence of a second equilibrium in which the dormant FeII
dichloride can trap and stabilize the free radical to form an
FeIII alkyl dichloride. The analogous idiom for this equilibri-
um can be termed carbophilicity.
To investigate the origin of the differing polymerization
mechanisms of these iron catalysts, the trivalent derivatives
[R(N,N)FeCl3] (R = cyclohexyl (Cy), 1; tBu, 2; 2,6-iPr2C6H3
(DIPP), 3) were prepared by addition of the a-diimines to
FeCl3. For 1, a solution magnetic moment of 5.97 mB was
obtained, corresponding well with the spin-only value of
5.92 mB for a d5 high-spin iron(iii) center (S = 5/2, sextet). The
magnetic moment for 3 (3.99 mB) corresponds well to a d5
intermediate-spin iron(iii) center (3.87 mB, S = 3/2, quartet).[10]
While intermediate-spin iron(iii) is rare in biological sys-
tems,[11,12] numerous iron porphyrinogen and porphyrin com-
plexes exist in quartet spin states.[13–15] This trend persists in
other [R(N,N)FeCl3] complexes; aliphatic a-diimines have
high-spin magnetic moments while lower spins are observed
in aromatic systems. This difference correlates well with the
observed polymerization behaviour; alkylimine iron com-
plexes behave as ATRP catalysts, but arylimine systems
promote CCT. Could this change in spin state account for the
apparent change in halogenophilicity versus carbophilicity
Figure 2. Ratio of integrated GC peaks for the formation of bibenzyl
and toluene arising from the decomposition of [R(N,N)FeCl2(CH2Ph)]
&
^
at different temperatures; R=Cy ( ), R=DIPP ( ). Higher ratios
indicate bibenzyl is the primary decomposition product. Ratios below
1 indicate toluene is the primary decomposition product.
shows the ratio of bibenzyl/toluene formed as a function of
temperature. Formation of bibenzyl predominates even at
ꢀ788C when R = Cy ( ꢁ 7.5 Bn2/toluene), but toluene out-
weighs bibenzyl for R = DIPP ( ꢁ 0.2 Bn2/toluene) until
ꢀ208C when decomposition occurs ( ꢁ 5.5 Bn2/toluene). It is
clear that the aryl derivative has improved thermal stability;
thus complex 3 is a better alkyl radical trap at low temper-
atures and therefore may be viewed as being more carbo-
philic. At polymerization temperatures, where all FeIII species
are transient, this increased stability will result in a shift in the
relative positions of the equilibria in Figure 1. These exper-
imental observations support the notion that the diisopropyl-
phenyl derivative is more carbophilic and thus a better CCT
catalyst than either of the cyclohexyl or tert-butyl derivatives.
The lower-spin-state complexes will also have a vacant metal
d orbital available to facilitate the subsequent b-hydrogen-
elimination process.
and thus determine the outcome of the polymerization?
R
ꢀ
All [ (N,N)FeCl2] complexes react cleanly with R Cl
species under polymerization conditions to give coupled
To learn more about the role of metal spin state, a series of
Hartree–Fock-level all-electron [ROHF/6-31G(3d)] calcula-
products and the corresponding FeIII species, illustrating the
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Angewandte
Chemie
tions were performed on model systems for the two compet-
ing reactions of [R(N,N)FeCl2]. The chosen basis set effec-
tively reproduces core geometries of first-row transition-
metal systems while ensuring reasonable calculation times.[16]
Entropic differences required for Equation (2) are estimated
by using the model system CCl2 + PhCH2CÐPhCH2CCl2C.
Previous studies[17–19] have shown that the choice of basis set
and correlation treatment has a major influence on the
relative stabilities of sextet and quartet states in iron systems.
Although ROHF calculations overestimate the stability of the
sextet state, producing large energy differences between
sextet and quartet systems, they more accurately reproduce
energy differences between two self-consistent sextet com-
plexes.
Figure 3. Selected orbital correlation between the singly occupied
orbital in the [tBu(N,N)FeCl3] sextet (orbital 84, left) and doubly
occupied orbital in the corresponding quartet (orbital 61, right).
carbophilicity, [R(N,N)FeCl2] complexes were targeted con-
taining an electron-withdrawing para-fluorophenyl group at
the 2 and 3 positions of the ligand backbone. Syntheses of
Reactions (1) and (2), in which R is either tBu or Ph, were
R
R
C
ð1Þ
ð2Þ
½ ðN,NÞFeCl2Š þ C6H5CH2Cl Ð ½ ðN,NÞFeCl3Š þ C6H5CH2
=
=
[tBuN C(C6H4F)]2 (4) and [CyN C(C6H4F)]2 (5) were
accomplished by condensation of the requisite amine with
para-fluorobenzil, activated by TiCl4.[20] Reaction of 4 or 5
R
C
R
½ ðN,NÞFeCl2Š þ C6H5CH2 Ð ½ ðN,NÞFeCl2ðCH2C6H5ފ
with FeCl2·1.5THF[21] generated [tBu,FC H (N,N)FeCl2] (6) and
6
4
Cy,FC6H4
computed with the spin state of the iron complexes specified
as either quartet (S = 3/2) or sextet (S = 5/2) for the FeIII
species. The relative preference of the two reactions for a
particular spin state of iron is a determinant of carbophilicity
versus halogenophilicity. For FeIII sextet systems, halogen-
ophilic behavior is favored. For R = tBu and Ph, Reaction (1)
[
(N,N)FeCl2] (7). The atom transfer radical polymeri-
zation of styrene initiated using 1-phenylethyl chloride (1-
PECl) with [Cy(N,N)FeCl2] and [tBu(N,N)FeCl2] at 1208C is
characterized by low polydispersities and molecular weights
that increase linearly with time and conversion.[4] The
polymerization of styrene using the aryl-substituted catalysts
6 and 7 monitored under the same conditions generates
polymer through a different mechanism. The reactions
proceed relatively slowly (e.g. for 6, kobs. = 0.02 hꢀ1) and the
polymer obtained was of low molecular weight (Figure 4).
is favored over Reaction (2) by 10.6 and 5.5 kcalmolꢀ1
,
respectively. This trend, however, is reversed for intermedi-
ate-spin quartet systems. For R = tBu and Ph, Reaction (2) is
now favored by 0.9 and 4.6 kcalmolꢀ1, respectively. The
calculations thus predict that systems with S = 3/2 spin states
are carbophilic while those with S = 5/2 spin states are
halogenophilic. The calculations also show that for R = Ph
the carbophilicity is even more pronounced, supporting the
experimental evidence for arylimine carbophilicity.
An orbital correlation study between [tBu(N,N)FeCl3]
sextet and quartet spin states suggests a rationale for the
preference of intermediate spin states for arylimines. The
quartet is formally linked to the sextet state by a single
electron promotion, and this directly impacts upon the
occupied orbital energies and their propensity to include
mixing with other atomic orbitals (AOs). In the sextet state,
molecular orbital (MO) 84 is singly occupied and predom-
inantly Fe d AO in character with little other mixing. In the
quartet state, this MO becomes doubly occupied with a
resulting lower energy (61). This introduces metal-based
d AOs mixing with ligand AOs of similar energy, creating a
delocalized MO in which conjugation with the a-diimine is a
prominent feature. This coupling suggests that changes to the
electronic characteristics of the ligand substituents would
have a strong influence on the nature of the quartet orbital
(Figure 3) and hence the quartet/sextet balance.
As the conjugation of this orbital into the ligand backbone
includes the 2 and 3 positions of the backbone, these sites will
also affect the quartet state and its promotion to a sextet state.
Systematic alteration of the backbone substituents should,
therefore, control the metal spin state and thus catalyst
behavior without significant alteration of the steric environ-
ment at the iron center. To tune the catalyst for halogeno- or
Figure 4. Plot of molecular weight, Mn , versus conversion for polymer-
tBu,FC6H4
ization of styrene by [tBu(N,N)FeCl2] ( ) and [
(N,N)FeCl2] ( ).
^
*
End-group analysis by multinuclear NMR spectroscopy
confirmed that olefin-terminated polymer had formed. The
polymerization mechanism has switched, generating low
molecular weight polymer presumably by a catalytic chain
transfer mechanism. Synthesis of the FeIII complexes [tBu,FC H
-
6
4
(N,N)FeCl3] (8) and [Cy,FC H (N,N)FeCl3] (9) established that
control over metal spin state has been achieved. The two
complexes have solution magnetic moments of 4.01 and
3.85 mB, respectively, indicating that both are intermediate-
spin S = 3/2 systems. Evansꢀ method NMR spectroscopic
measurements over the temperature range 18–1208C con-
6
4
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 1241 –1244
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Communications
firmed that the intermediate spin state prevails at the
polymerization temperature.
Keywords: a-diimines · homogeneous catalysis · iron ·
polymerization · spin state
.
In summary, we have demonstrated a correlation between
metal spin state and a simple catalytic chemical reaction, that
of polymerization. For FeIII species in a high spin state (S =
5/2), living atom transfer radical polymerization predomi-
nates, whereas with catalysts in an intermediate spin state
(S = 3/2), an organometallic pathway leads to catalytic chain
transfer. We have further shown that the metal spin state of
the iron species can be controlled by judicious choice of a-
diimine ligand substituents, highlighting the possibilities for
the rational design of catalysts on the basis of metal spin state.
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Experimental Section
All solvents were distilled over standard drying agents under nitrogen
and were deoxygenated before use. All reactions were performed
under an inert atmosphere. Full experimental and calculation details,
as well as characterization and polymerization data can be found in
the Supporting Information.
Ligand synthesis: To
a solution of the appropriate amine
[13] J. Bachmann, D. N. Nocera, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 4730.
[14] T. Sakai, Y. Ohgo, T. Ikeue, M. Takahashi, M. Takeda, M.
Nakamura, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 13028.
[15] T. Sakai, Y. Ohgo, A. Hoshino, T. Ikeue, T. Saitoh, M. Takahashi,
M. Nakamura, Inorg. Chem. 2004, 43, 5034.
(80.0 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (30 mL) at 08C was added dropwise TiCl4
(1.0m in CH2Cl2, 12.2 mL, 12 mmol). p-Fluorobenzene (2.5 g,
10 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (10 mL) was added dropwise, and the solution
allowed to warm to room temperature and stir overnight. The
reaction was quenched with water, filtered, and extracted into
CH2Cl2. Removal of solvent left a sticky orange solid, which was
[16] K. P. Tellmann, M. J. Humphries, H. S. Rzepa, V. C. Gibson,
Organometallics 2004, 23, 5503.
recrystallized from MeOH(60 mL) to give off-white crystals of
4
[17] R. J. Deeth, N. Fey, J. Comput. Chem. 2004, 25, 1840.
[18] N. J. DeYonker, Y. Yamaguchi, W. D. Allen, C. Pak, H. F.
Schaefer, K. A. Peterson, J. Chem. Phys. 2004, 120, 4726.
[19] M. Swart, A. R. Groenhof, A. W. Ehlers, K. Lammertsma, J.
Phys. Chem. A 2004, 108, 5479.
[20] N. DeKimpe, L. DꢀHondt, E. Stanoeva, Tetrahedron Lett. 1991,
32, 3879.
[21] F. A. Cotton, R. L. Luck, K. A. Son, Inorg. Chim. Acta 1991, 179,
11.
(3.06 g, 84%) and 5 (3.65 g, 88%), respectively. Other diimine ligands
were prepared as described in the literature.[22, 23]
[R(N,N)FeCln] synthesis: To a mixture of FeCl3 or FeCl2·1.5THF
(6.00 mmol) and ligand (6.00 mmol) was added CH2Cl2 (30 mL) and
the resulting solution stirred for 24 h. Filtration of the solution,
followed by removal of solvent in vacuo gave a greasy solid. Washing
with pentane (3 ” 15 mL) gave 1 as a yellow solid (67% yield), 2 as an
orange solid (74%), 6, 7, and 8 as purple solids (72, 77, and 60%,
respectively), and 9 as a dark-red solid (70%). [DIPP(N,N)FeCl3] (3)
was prepared by heating a solution of DIPP(N,N) and FeCl3 in THF at
reflux for 18 h, followed by extraction into diethyl ether, removal of
solvent, and washing with pentane to give a green-black solid (78%).
Alkylation experiments: [R(N,N)FeCl3] (0.500 mmol) was dis-
solved in THF (10 mL) and cooled to ꢀ788C followed by dropwise
addition of a solution of RMgCl (0.500 mmol) in THF. An aliquot
(1 mL) was removed from the reaction mixture and quenched with
distilled H2O. Subsequent aliquots were removed and quenched over
a range of temperatures. Aliquots were filtered through basic alumina
and analysed by GC or GC/MS. GC area counts were corrected
against organic components present in unreacted RMgCl.
[22] A. J. Arduengo, R. Krafczyk, R. Schumtzler, Tetrahedron 1999,
55, 14523.
[23] A. T. T. Hsieh, B. O. West, J. Organomet. Chem. 1976, 112, 285.
Polymerization experiments: Styrene (5.000 g, 48.00 mmol), 1-
phenylethyl chloride (32.0 mL, 0.240 mmol), and catalyst
(0.240 mmol) were added to an ampoule equipped with a magnetic
stirrer bar. The vessel was then sealed and heated to 1208C.
Conversion was determined by integration of signals for monomer
versus polymer backbone in the 1HNMR spectrum of crude aliquots
(0.1 mL) removed from the reaction mixture at appropriate intervals.
Upon completion of the reaction, the vessel contents were dissolved
in THF and added dropwise to acidified methanol to precipitate the
poly(styrene), which was washed and dried in vacuo. Samples were
analysed by gel permeation chromatography against styrene stand-
ards to determine the molecular weight.
Received: August 22, 2005
Revised: October 17, 2005
Published online: January 17, 2006
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Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 1241 –1244