Full text of DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb08238.x

JFS:FoodChemistryandToxicology
Bioavailability of Eicosapentaenoic and
Docosahexaenoic n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
in Salmon Patties Compared with Capsules
K.C. MAKI, M.H. DAVIDSON, M.R. DICKLIN, K.A. INGRAM, M. CYROWSKI, D.M. UMPOROWICZ, M. BELL, J.G. ELLIOTT
ABSTRACT: This sequential treatment trial compared the bioavailability of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from salmon patties fortified with fish oil (DHA:EPA ratio = 1.8, total DHA + EPA about
2.2 g), unfortified salmon patties (DHA:EPA ratio = 1.9, total DHA + EPA about 1.1 g), and fish oil capsules (DHA:EPA
ratio = 1.6, total DHA + EPA = 500 mg) in healthy older adults. Fortified salmon patties produced a significantly
higher mean incremental area under the curve (AUCfasting-9 h) than unfortified patties for plasma EPA (37.6 in contrast
to 12.9 ␮g·h/mL, p = 0.017), for plasma DHA (103.7 in contrast to 40.8 ␮g·h/mL, p = 0.035) and for plasma
EPA + DHA (141.2 in contrast to 53.7 ␮g·h/mL, p = 0.031). Plasma EPA and DHA responses were larger with the
fortified than the unfortified patties, indicating that fish oil incorporated into the salmon patties was bioavailable.
Keywords: n-3 fatty acids, bioavailability, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, enrichment
Introduction
1999; von Schacky and others 1999; GISSI-Prevenzione Investiga-
tors 1999; Krauss and others 2000), the American Heart Association
recently suggested consumption of one fatty fish meal per d (or
alternately, a fish oil supplement) to achieve n-3 fatty acid intake
of about 900 mg per d (Krauss and others 2000). Increasing fish
intake is the most obvious way to increase n-3 fatty acid intake, but
many individuals would prefer to consume fewer servings of fish or
supplements, leading to the need for the development of new n-3
fatty acid products.
With the availability of new n-3 fatty acid products comes the
question of whether or not these preparations are similar to fish and
other fish oils in their absorption and efficacy (Davidson and others
1997; Morcos 1997; Vidgren and others 1997; Wallace and others
2000). The bioavailability of n-3 fatty acids from fish, fish oil, EPA/
DHA supplements, and fish oil-enriched foods is affected by many
variables including concomitant dietary factors and the type and
form of fatty acid consumed (Meyer and others 1976; Lawson and
Hughes 1988; Silverman and others 1991). The bioavailability of the
n-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) is especially important given the need
to add fish oils rich in these essential fatty acids to food products.
The primary objective of this study was to compare the bioavail-
ability of n-3 fatty acids from salmon patties fortified with an EPA-
and DHA-containing oil (ROPUFA® ‘30’ n-3 FOOD Oil), unfortified
salmon patties, and EPA/DHA capsules (ROPUFA® ‘30’ n-3 FOOD
Oil) administered with vegetable-based patties.
HE N-3 POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID
T
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are precursors of met-
abolic products with important roles in blood clotting, immune re-
sponse, and vascular tone (Kinsella and others 1990; Simopoulos
1991). These n-3 fatty acids are essential for normal growth and de-
velopment throughout the life cycle, and they should be compo-
nents of the diets of all persons. In addition, a higher intake of n-3
fatty acids may have a beneficial role in the prevention or treatment
of diseases, such as coronary heart disease (Krauss and others
2000), hypertension, autoimmune disorders (Connor 1997; Kremer
and others 1997), cancer (Simopoulos 1991), and diabetes (Prince
and Deeg 1997).
It is increasingly evident that incorporation of greater amounts
of n-3 fatty acids into the diet, through eating fish or consuming fish
oil supplements, may aid in the prevention of various diseases (Si-
mopoulos 1991; Kremer and others 1997; Lovegrove and others
1997; Prince and Deeg 1997; Krauss and others 2000). A variety of
cold-water marine fish oils (cod liver oil, salmon oil, tuna oil, men-
haden oils) have been available to consumers for many years as
dietary supplements, and now preparations containing either fish
oils rich in EPA and DHA or highly concentrated preparations (eth-
yl esters) of EPA and DHA are available. Early studies indicated
that the quantity of fish consumption required to reap therapeu-
tic benefits was quite high—from 250 to 500 g fish per d (Bang and
Dyerberg 1972; Bang and others 1975; Dyerberg and others 1975).
More recent investigations suggest that lower levels also provide
nutritional benefits (Harris 1997; Krauss and others 2000).
Several scientific organizations have made recommendations
regarding optimal n-3 fatty acid consumption (Roche 1999; Krauss
and others 2000). The recommendations vary widely (about a 7-
fold difference), due in part to the differing definitions of optimal
nutrition: “preventing deficiency” or “promoting health” (Roche
1999). In any case, the daily n-3 fatty acid intake of most persons
falls short of these recommendations. Because of the numerous
reports of the beneficial effects of increased n-3 fatty acid intake
among persons with coronary artery disease (de Lorgeril and others
Materials and Methods
Study design
This was a sequential treatment study with 4 clinic visits: 1 at
screening and 3 at which treatment was administered. Treatment
visits were separated by 1-wk washout periods. The trial was con-
ducted according to Good Clinical Practice, the 1996 Declaration of
Helsinki, and United States Code of Federal Regulations Title 21,
Part 50, Protection of Human Subjects, and Part 56, Institutional
Review Boards. Signed written informed consent for the study was
obtained from all subjects before protocol-specific procedures were
© 2003 Institute of Food Technologists
Further reproduction prohibited without permission
Vol. 68, Nr. 3, 2003—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 761

Salmon patty EPA and DHA bioavailability . . .
Table 1—Fatty acid composition of ROPUFA® ‘30’ n-3 FOOD Table 2—Macronutrient composition of study product sand-
Oil (EPA/DHA-containing fish oil)
wiches and capsules
Fatty acid
Formula
% by weighta
Unfortified
salmon patties
(Control)
Fortified
salmon
patties
Vegetable
patties
Myristic acid
Palmitic acid
Palmitoleic acid
Stearic acid
Oleic acid
cis-Vaccenic acid
Linoleic acid
gamma-Linolenic acid
Eicosenoic acid
alpha-Linolenic acid
Moroctic/Stearidonic acid
Erucic acid
C14:0
C16:0
C16:1n-7
C18:0
5.5
16.3
6.1
3.1
11.6
2.6
2.5
0.2
1.8
1.7
2.9
2.3
0.9
11.0
1.1
17.6
28.4
25.8
39.4
6.3
35.0
1.6
+ capsules
Patties
Energy (kcal)
Fat (g)
Protein (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Bun(s)
Energy (kcal)
Fat (g)
Protein (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Butter
Energy (kcal)
Fat (g)
Protein (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Capsules
Energy (kcal)
Fat (g)
Protein (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
TOTAL
220
4.2
42
8
248
7.2
42
8
225
1.3
40
C18:1n-9
C18:1n-7
C18:2n-6c
C18:3n-6
C20:1n-9
C18:3n-3
C18:4n-3
C22:1n-9
C20:4n-6
C20:5n-3
C22:5n-3
C22:6n-3
—
17.5
165
1.5
6
165
1.5
6
110
1
4
30
30
20
Arachidonic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
Saturated fatty acids
Monounsaturated fatty acids
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Total uncharacterized
n-3 fatty acids
27
3.1
0
0
0
0
0
36
4.1
0
0
0
—
—
—
—
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
3
0
DHA:EPA ratio
—
0
aValues are the mean of analyses of 8 production lots.
Energy (kcal)
Fat (g)
412
9
413
9
398
9
Protein (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
48
38
48
38
44
38
carried out. The protocol and consent form were approved by
Schulman Associates Institutional Review Board Inc. (Cincinnati,
Ohio, U.S.A.).
crumbs, water, brown rice syrup solids, seasonings, flavors, and
colors). At the 2nd treatment visit, subjects received 2 salmon pat-
ties fortified with fish oil (ROPUFA® ’30’ n-3 FOOD Oil, Roche Vita-
mins Inc., Parsippany, N.J., U.S.A.) as part of a low-fat meal. Enrich-
ment was achieved by incorporation of fish oil into the salmon
patties during manufacture. At the 3rd treatment visit, subjects
received 2.5 commercially available vegetable patties plus 3 fish oil
capsules (ROPUFA® ’30’ n-3 FOOD Oil) as part of a low-fat meal.
The fish oil utilized in this study is a high-quality mixed species
marine oil containing at least 30% n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
in the form of triglycerides including EPA and DHA. A complete
profile of the fatty acids in the marine oil is shown in Table 1. Dur-
ing the fish oil capsule treatment period, subjects took 3 capsules
for a total dose of 500 mg EPA + DHA. Based on analyses of 5 ran-
domly selected sample patties from each production lot, the
EPA + DHA dose of the fortified salmon patty was approximately
1,144 mg per patty (total dose of about 2.2 g), and the unfortified
salmon patty contained approximately 567 mg EPA + DHA per pat-
ty (total dose of about 1.1 g). The mean DHA:EPA ratios were 1.6,
1.9, and 1.8, for the capsules and unfortified and fortified patties,
respectively.
Study products were administered as part of standardized, low-
fat meals containing negligible amounts of n-3 fatty acids. Macro-
nutrient composition of the fish oil capsule and salmon and vege-
table-patty sandwich components of these meals is shown in Table
2. Subjects were asked to consume the entire meal, including study
products, within 30 min. In addition to the treatment sandwich, all
subjects were served 237 mL (8 oz) of unsweetened orange juice, 1
glass of water, and a 118 mL (4 oz) can of diced fruit cocktail in juice.
Subjects were also offered 177 mL (6 oz) fat-free yogurt, clear sugar-
free soft drink, fat-free saltines, soup, rice cakes, and an additional
fruit cup after the 4-h blood sample. Decaffeinated coffee was also
allowed at this point, but the only other beverages allowed were
clear soft drink or water.
Subjects
Subjects were recruited from the Chicago metropolitan area,
utilizing the patient database of the Chicago Center for Clinical
Research. Participants were men and women of non-childbearing
potential (naturally or surgically postmenopausal), between the
ages of 45 and 75 y. Eligible subjects were required to abstain from
fish consumption for 1 wk prior to the 1st treatment visit and
throughout the trial. All were apparently healthy, based on medi-
cal history, brief physical examination, and routine laboratory tests
(serum chemistry, hematology, and urinalysis) conducted at the
screening visit. Persons with serum triglyceride concentration
above 250 mg/dL were excluded, as were those with a history of fish
consumption of more than once per wk. Other exclusion criteria
included clinical evidence of any significant chronic illness; history
or presence of a clinically significant endocrine disorder; the pres-
ence of any manifest premalignant or malignant disease; and cur-
rent unstable angina, congestive heart failure, inflammatory bowel
disease, pancreatitis, diabetes, hypothyroidism, nephrotic syn-
drome, significant anemia, or hyperadrenocorticalism.
Because of the potential to interfere with the study results, use
of any of the following medications was not allowed: oral hypolip-
idemic therapy within 4 wk prior to screening; use of unstable or
cyclic doses of thiazides, beta-adrenergic blockers, thyroid hor-
mones, quinidine, theophylline, or sex hormone replacement ther-
apy; and a history or chronic use of systemic corticosteroids, andro-
gens, or phenytoin.
Study products
Subjects consumed study products once at each of 3 treatment
clinic visits. At the 1st treatment visit, subjects consumed a low-fat
meal including 2 unfortified (control) salmon patties (“Salmon
Burger,” AquaCuisine Inc. of Boise, Idaho, U.S.A.: a processed patty
made with natural Alaska salmon, potato starch, onion, bread-
762 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 68, Nr. 3, 2003

Salmon patty EPA and DHA bioavailability . . .
Table 3—Mean area under the curve (AUCfasting-9 h) plasma
concentrations of EPA, DHA, and EPA + DHA according to
treatment
tial criticism of the study, but this did not likely affect the results.
The risk with nonrandom assignment would be a carry-over effect
between treatment phases, indicated by a rising baseline as the
study progresses. There was no increase in baseline values over
time, suggesting that the washout period between treatments was
sufficient. All randomized subjects were evaluated for safety, and
the 10 subjects who completed all treatment clinic visits were eval-
uated for efficacy.
Unfortified
salmon patties
(control)
Fortified
salmon
patties
Vegetable
patties
+ capsules
EPA, ␮g·h/mL
DHA, ␮g·h/mL
12.9 6.5
40.8 23.6
37.6 24.4a
103.7 77.0a
5.9 11.2a
7.4 12.1a
EPA + DHA, ␮g·h/mL 53.7 29.1 141.2 101.2a 13.4 23.1a
Subjects were predominantly Caucasian (8 [72.7%]). Three
(27.3%) of the 11 subjects were black. Gender distribution was ap-
proximately equal: 5 (45.5%) subjects were male, and 6 (54.5%) were
female, and the group had a mean age of 58.3 y. Because only one
subject (black female, 53 y of age) dropped from the study, demo-
graphic characteristics of the 10 subjects who completed were similar
to all subjects. Of the completed subjects, 80% and 20% were Cauca-
sian or black, respectively. There was equal male and female distri-
bution among this group, and the mean age was 58.8 y.
a
Superscripts in a row denote a statistically significant difference from the
unfortified salmon patties (control) group by pairwise comparisons using the
Dunnett’s procedure (p < 0.05).
Assessments
The primary efficacy variable was the bioavailability of n-3 fatty
acids (EPA and DHA), measured as the mean area under the curve
(AUC) for triglyceride EPA and DHA in blood samples collected pri-
or to consumption of study products (average of values obtained
from measurements conducted on samples collected at –0.5 and 0
h) and at 1, 2, 4, 6, and 9 h following consumption of the low-fat
meal plus study products.
Incremental area under the curve
Results of the mean AUCfasting-9 h EPA and DHA analyses are
shown in Table 3. Pairwise comparisons utilizing Dunnett’s proce-
dure indicated that consumption of the fortified patties resulted in
significantly higher plasma concentrations of EPA than consump-
tion of the unfortified patties (p = 0.017). Additionally, consumption
of the unfortified patties resulted in significantly higher concentra-
tions of EPA than did the vegetable patties plus the capsules
(p = 0.013). According to pairwise comparisons, the vegetable pat-
ties plus capsules produced significantly lower DHA concentrations
than the unfortified patties (p < 0.001). The difference between
fortified and unfortified patty responses was also significant
(p = 0.035). Vegetable patties plus capsules were found to produce
significantly lower plasma EPA + DHA concentrations than the
unfortified patties (p = 0.003), and the difference between fortified
and unfortified patties in the EPA + DHA mean AUCfasting-9 h concen-
trations was also statistically significant (p = 0.031).
Because of differences in doses between groups, a direct com-
parison of the bioavailability of the n-3 fatty acids in the various
treatments was not possible. However, qualitative evaluation is
possible by looking at the proportionality of n-3 fatty acids con-
sumed relative to the AUCfasting-9 h, which was 4.0 for the capsules
compared to the unfortified patties, 10.5 for the capsules compared
to the fortified patties, and 2.6 for the unfortified patties compared
to the fortified patties. We would expect the AUCfasting-9 h to be
roughly proportional to the dose consumed, with the AUCfasting-9 h
smallest with the capsules, larger with the unfortified patties and
the largest with the fortified patties, which was in fact what we saw.
For DHA, there was an approximate 5-fold increase in the AUCfasting-
EPA and DHA were measured in triglycerides, as described by
Subbaiah and others (1993). Following lipid extraction, triglycerides
were separated on silica gel TLC plates with the solvent system of
hexane: diethyl ether: acetic acid (70: 30: 1, v/v), and the spot cor-
responding to standard triolein was scraped from the plate after
spraying the plate with 0.1% dichlorofluorescein in 95% ethanol.
Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared with the BF3-methanol re-
agent (Supelco, Bellefonte, Pa., U.S.A.) and were analyzed on a
Shimadzu GC-9 chromatograph (Shimadzu Scientific Instruments
Inc., Columbia, Md., U.S.A.) equipped with a SupelcoWax 10 fused-
silica column (Supelco Inc., Bellefonte, Pa., U.S.A.). The tempera-
ture of the oven was initially 172 °C for 8 min, and was raised at a
rate of 6 °C per min to a final temperature of 220 °C, which was
maintained for 20 min. Peaks were identified by comparing with
retention times of standards. The concentrations of DHA and EPA
were calculated with reference to a 17:0 internal standard.
Safety and tolerability were assessed by monitoring adverse
events reported by subjects at each clinic visit. Additionally, vital
signs (blood pressure and pulse) and body weight were measured
at each clinic visit.
Statistical methods
The per-protocol population, including all subjects who complet-
ed the full length of the study, was utilized for efficacy analyses. An
analysis of variance model was generated to compare the incremen-
tal areas under the curve (fasting [average of values at –0.5 and 0
h] to 9 h), hereafter denoted as mean AUCfasting-9 h of triglyceride
EPA and DHA among the 3 treatment phases. Post-hoc pairwise
comparisons were conducted utilizing Dunnett’s procedure.
The safety population included all subjects who entered the
study, had at least 1 treatment clinic visit, and received 1 dose of
study product. Possible differences in the incidence of adverse
events were assessed with the Fisher’s exact test.
for the unfortified patties compared to the capsules, and an
9 h
additional 2.5-fold increase for the fortified compared to the unfor-
tified patties. For EPA, these increases were about 2-fold and 3-fold,
and for the total EPA + DHA increase in responses were approxi-
mately 4-fold and 2.5-fold. These results demonstrate that the fish
oil n-3 fatty acids were biologically available when incorporated
into salmon patties.
As mentioned, the current study did not allow a direct compar-
ison of the bioavailability of n-3 fatty acids from fortified salmon
patties as compared to a fish oil capsule, but another recent study
examined the bioavailability of n-3 fatty acids from foods enriched
Results and Discussion
Subjects
Eleven subjects were randomized to this sequential treatment with microencapsulated fish oil compared with n-3 fatty acids in a
study, of which 10 (90.9%) completed. One subject withdrew from capsule (Wallace and others 2000). Analyses of platelet fatty acid
the study (withdrew consent) after the 2nd treatment clinic visit. composition following 4 wk of intervention indicated no significant
All subjects followed the same treatment sequence (unfortified: difference in the bioavailability of n-3 fatty acids from foods as
fortifed: vegetable-patties plus capsules), which could be a poten- compared to capsules.
Vol. 68, Nr. 3, 2003—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 763

Salmon patty EPA and DHA bioavailability . . .
Childs MT, King IB, Knopp RH. 1990. Divergent lipoprotein responses to fish oils
with various ratios of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Am J
Clin Nutr 52:632-9.
Connor WE. 1997. The beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids: cardiovascular
disease and neurodevelopment. Curr Opin Lipidol 8:1-3.
Generally, difficulties in comparing the bioavailability of various
fish oils and n-3 fatty acid supplements have arisen due to the
unspecified composition of the products being compared. Some
fish oils are based on either ethyl ester or free acids, and may also
vary greatly in their relative concentrations of EPA and DHA (Law-
son and Hughes 1988; Childs and others 1990). Beckermann and
others (1990) have reported that EPA and DHA are more bioavail-
able in the free fatty acid form and less bioavailable in the ethyl
ester form as compared to ingestion as triglycerides. In the current
study, the fish oil used was in triglyceride form, and the DHA:EPA
ratio was similar among all products (1.6 in capsules, 1.9 in unforti-
fied patties, and 1.8 in fortified patties).
Davidson MH, Maki KC, Kalkowski J. 1997. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid on
serum lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia: a randomized,
double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Coll Nutr 16:236-43.
de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL. 1999. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk
factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarc-
tion: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation 99:779-85.
Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Hjorne N. 1975. Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids
in Greenland Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr 28:958-66.
GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. 1999. Dietary supplementation with n-3 poly-
unsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of
the GISSI Prevenzione trial. Lancet 354:447-55.
Harris WS. 1997. n-3 Fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J
Clin Nutr 65:1645S-54S.
Kinsella JE, Lokesh B, Stone RA. 1990. Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
and amelioration of cardiovascular disease: possible mechanisms. Am J Clin
Nutr 52:1-28.
Krauss RM, Eckel RH, Howard B. 2000. AHA Dietary Guidelines. Revision 2000:
a statement for healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the
American Heart Association. Circulation 102:2284-99.
Safety
All of the products examined were found to be safe and well tol-
erated. Only 2 subjects reported adverse events (a fall with mild
abrasions during the fortified salmon patty period of the study and
mild headache during the unfortified [control] salmon patty peri-
od). Both events were judged by the investigator not to be related
to the study products. There were no remarkable changes in body
weight or vital signs during the study. Mean systolic blood pressure
at clinic visits (including baseline) ranged from 121.1 to 126.4 mm
Hg, mean diastolic blood pressure ranged from 73.8 to 81.0 mm Hg,
and mean pulse rate ranged from 69.4 to 78.2 beats per min. Mean
body weight at each clinic visit (including baseline) ranged from
86.6 to 90.0 kg.
Kremer JM, Jubiz W, Michalek A. 1997. Fish-oil fatty acid supplementation in
active rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med 106:497-503.
Lawson LD, Hughes BG. 1988. Absorption of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosa-
hexaenoic acid from fish oil triacylglycerols of fish oil ethyl ester co-ingested
with a high fat meal. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 156:960-3.
Lovegrove JA, Brooks, CN, Murphy MC, Gould BJ, Williams CM. 1997. Use of
manufactured foods enriched with fish oils as a means of increasing long-
chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake. Br J Nutr 78:223-36.
Meyer JH, Stevenson EA, Watts HD. 1976. The potential role of protein in the
absorption of fat. Gastroenterology 70:232-9.
Morcos NC. 1997. Modulation of lipid profile by fish oil and garlic combination.
J Nat Med Assoc 89:673-8.
Prince MJ, Deeg MA. 1997. Do n-3 fatty acids improve glucose tolerance and
lipemia in diabetics? Curr Opin Lipidol 8:7-11.
Roche HM. 1999. Unsaturated fatty acids. Proc Nutr Soc 58:397-401.
Silverman DI, Wau JA, Sacks FM, Pasternak RC. 1991. Comparison of the absorp-
tion and effect on platelet function of a single dose of n-3 fatty acids given as
fish or fish oil. Am J Clin Nutr 53:1165-70.
Conclusions
HE RESULTS OF THIS CLINICAL TRIAL INDICATE THAT INCORPORATION
Simopoulos AP. 1991. Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth
and development. Am J Clin Nutr 54:438-63.
Subbaiah PV, Kaufman D, Bagdade JD. 1993. Incorporation of dietary n-3 fatty
acids into molecular species of phosphatidyl choline and cholesteryl ester in
normal human plasma. Am J Clin Nutr 58:360-8.
Vidgren HM, Agren JJ, Schwab U. 1997. Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into
plasma lipid fractions, and erythrocyte membranes and platelets during di-
etary supplementation with fish oil among healthy young men. Lipids 32:697-
705.
T
of EPA and DHA from fish oil into salmon patties is bioavailable,
resulting in elevated plasma n-3 fatty acid concentrations. Al-
though the quantity of fish consumption required to achieve nutri-
tional benefits (preventing coronary heart disease, hypertension,
and autoimmune diseases) remains to be defined, the results re-
ported here suggest that persons who want to increase their n-3
fatty acid consumption may be able to do so with fewer servings of von Schacky C, Angerer P, Kothny W. 1999. The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty
acids on coronary atherosclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-con-
fish via n-3 enriched fish products, such as fish oil-fortified salmon
trolled trial. Ann Intern Med 130:554-62.
patties.
Wallace JM, McCabe AJ, Robson PJ. 2000. Bioavailability of n-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA) in foods enriched with microencapsulated fish oil. Ann Nutr
Metab 44:157-62.
MS 20020226 Submitted 4/3/02, Revised 9/4/02, Accepted 11/14/02, Received
11/19/02
References
Bang HO, Dyerberg J. 1972. Plasma lipids and lipoproteins in Greenlandic West-
coast Eskimos. Acta Med Scand 192:85-94.
Bang HO, Dyerberg J, Hjorne N. 1975. The composition of food consumed by
This study was funded by Roche Vitamins Inc., Parsippany, N.J., U.S.A.
Greenland Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr 28:958-66.
Authors are with Protocare Development, Chicago Center for Clinical Re-
search, 515 North State St., Suite 2700, Chicago, IL 60610. Direct inquiries to
author Maki (E-mail: kmaki@protocare.com).
Beckermann B, Beneke M, Seitz I. 1990. Comparative bioavailability of eicosa-
pentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from triglycerides, free fatty acids
and ethyl esters in volunteers. Arzneimittelforschung 40:700-4.
764 JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE—Vol. 68, Nr. 3, 2003