The complex BiCl3 · CH3C6H 5

Article abstract of DOI:10.1515/znb-2007-0920

Single crystals of BiCl₃ ·CH₃C ₆H₅ (1) formed from BiCl₃ and toluene have been analysed by X-ray crystallography (triclinic, P1?, Z = 4, a = 7.308(2), b = 12.013(3), c = 12.284(2) A?, α = 75.02(2), β = 84.23(2), γ = 88.86(2)°, T = 173(2) K).

Full text of DOI:10.1515/znb-2007-0920

Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
DOI 10.1515/sbe-2015-0029
THE EXISTENCE OF REVENUE GAP IN SOUTH AFRICA
THAMAE Retselisitsoe
National University of Lesotho
NTOI Neo
National University of Lesotho
Abstract:
The paper provides an empirical analysis of the macroeconomic factors that enhance
revenue gap in South Africa using the multivariate cointegration techniques for the period 1965
to 2012. The results from the cointegration analysis indicate that the revenue gap in South Africa
is negatively associated with the level of imports while positively related to external debt and
underground economy. The former finding is consistent with the notion that imports are
subjected to more taxation than domestic activities because of certain features of international
trade that tend to make tax evasion difficult. On the other hand, the positive relationship between
external debt and tax gap shows that the South African government relies upon external debt to
finance its budget deficit resulting from missing revenues. Furthermore, the observed negative
effect of the post-apartheid dummy confirms that the tax policy reforms that South Africa
introduced following the liberation in 1994 have led to a reduction in missing revenues. The
results from the Granger causality test also show that there is a unidirectional causality running
from imports and underground economy to revenue gap, while revenue gap on the other hand is
found to Granger-cause national income and external debt in South Africa.
Key words: revenue gap, tax gap, underground economy, cointegration, South Africa
1. Introduction
The tax policy objectives of the South African government following liberation
in 1994 have centered on curbing tax evasion, promoting greater compliance and
ensuring equitable tax regime (AfDB, 2010). This is so because the government
generally relies on tax revenues to run its budgets and finance its expenditures.
Nevertheless, the collected revenues from the taxes are sometimes lower than what is
expected and such a difference could be attributed to the missing revenues, which are
normally defined as revenue or tax gap (Siddiqi and Ilyas, 2011). In the literature, there
are several factors highlighted that can either enhance or discourage the existence of
revenue gap. For instance, Rimmer (2010) argues that factors such as high tax rates,
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
corruption and complexity of tax policy are positively related to the missing revenues
since they promote tax avoidance. On the other hand, measures that discourage tax
evasion, which include public trust, regulation and effective administration, are
considered to lead to a reduction in tax gap. The evidence on the effects of some of
these institutional and economic policy factors is offered by the work of Palil and
Mustapha (2011) on tax compliance within the Asian and European countries and by
that of Chaudhry and Munir (2010) on tax revenue performance in Pakistan.
Pyle (1989) further suggests that revenue gap can be influenced by the
shadow or underground economy, which refers to all the economic activities that
escape official statistics and hence remain untaxed by the government. Apart from the
shadow economy, there are other macroeconomic factors such as the level of
economic growth, imports and external debt as well as inflation and unemployment
rates that can either have positive or negative effects on the missing revenues (Salar
et al., 2013). For example, the theory postulates that there is a negative relationship
between the level of economic growth and revenue gap. This is because economic
growth leads to economic development, which results not only in a greater capacity for
both individuals and firms to pay taxes, but also for the government to levy and collect
taxes. Furthermore, the link between imports and tax gap is expected to be negative
since some features of international trade such as specific entry and exit points tend to
make tax evasion difficult and as a result, imports are subjected to more taxation than
domestic activities.
Conversely, a positive relationship is assumed between revenue gap and
external debt due to the fact that missing revenues can increase the country’s
dependence on external debt in order to finance the government budget. Inflation is
also expected to be positively associated with tax gap and in the presence of high
inflation rates, governments may face budget deficits due to missing revenues resulting
from rising tax burden. Alternatively, the effect of unemployment on revenue gap is
ambiguous since rising unemployment levels can either lead to an increase or a
decrease in tax evasion. Tax gap, on the other hand, can hinder economic growth by
creating shadow economy and resulting in high levels of inflation, unemployment and
budget deficits. The studies by Salar et al. (2013), Siddiqi and Ilyas (2011), and
Mazhar and Pierre-Guillaume (2011) thus provide supporting empirical evidence on the
relationship between revenue gap (or tax burden) and some of its aforementioned
macroeconomic determinants.
Although some empirical studies have analysed the relationship between
missing revenues and its macroeconomic factors in other emerging countries, the
South African experience on the subject is much less well researched. It is therefore
the object of this paper to determine the macroeconomic factors that enhance revenue
gap in South Africa using the multivariate cointegration techniques for the period 1965-
2012. The study contributes to the empirical literature on the determinants of missing
revenues in emerging economies using South Africa as a case study. The rest of the
paper is then structured as follows. Section 2 specifies the model while section 3
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
presents the estimation strategy. The results and their analysis are reported in section
4 and section 5 offers the concluding remarks.
2. Model Specification
The paper follows the work of Sookram and Watson (2005) as well as Salar et
al. (2013) to analyse the macroeconomic factors that enhance tax gap in South Africa.
The model of revenue gap
is then specified as a function of national income
, imports
, external debt
as follows:
, unemployment
, inflation
and
underground economy
where is the error term, the ’s are parameters to be estimated and
is a
dummy variable for the post-apartheid period (equal to 1 from the year 1994 when
apartheid was abolished and 0 otherwise). The post-apartheid dummy captures the
impact of the tax policy reforms introduced following the liberation in 1994, which have
an important bearing on revenue gap. These reforms include the recommendations
made by the Katz Commission, which focused on the following main sources of tax
revenue in South Africa: personal income tax, corporate income tax, value-added tax
and capital gains tax, and other measures that aligned South Africa’s tax policies with
modern international best practices (see AfDB, 2010).
The sign of the coefficient
on income
in equation (1) is expected to
on imports . The
and underground
, respectively, are expected to have a positive sign while the expected
be negative and the same sign is expected for the coefficient
coefficients
economy
,
and
on external debt
, inflation
sign of the coefficient
apartheid dummy
on unemployment is ambiguous. The coefficient
on post-
is expected to have a negative sign, which will imply that
the tax policy reforms introduced following the liberation in 1994 have led to a
reduction in the missing revenues by curbing tax evasion and promoting greater
compliance with the tax laws.
3.
Estimation Strategy
The Johansen’s (1988, 1995) multivariate cointegration technique is used to
estimate equation (1) since it performs better in terms of determining the long-run
relationship among variables with the same order of integration. The augmented
Dickey Fuller (ADF) test is first used to ascertain the presence of unit root among the
series (Dickey and Fuller, 1979, 1981). If the series are integrated of the same order,
that is,
, the maximum likelihood estimation of the following unrestricted vector
autoregression (VAR) model is undertaken to determine the existence of cointegrating
relationships:
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
Given that X is non-stationary and has to be differenced in order to become stationary,
equation (2) can be written in error-correction form as follows:
where
is a 6 by 1 vector containing revenue gap
, external debt , inflation
and are parameters to be estimated, is the lag
is a matrix of the long-run parameters, Z is a matrix containing a dummy
variable and is a vector of white noise errors. The appropriate lag length is then
, national income
,
imports
and the underground economy
, all at time period t.
length,
,
selected on the basis of the information criterion and the trace and maximum
eigenvalue statistics are employed to establish the cointegrating rank. If there is
cointegration, the matrix will have a rank of and it can be decomposed as
,
where is a 6 by 1 matrix of the adjustment coefficients and is a 6 by 1 matrix of the
coefficients in the cointegrating relationship. Finally, the Engle and Granger (1987)
causality test within the vector error-correction model (VECM) is applied to investigate
the causal relationship between the endogenous variables included in the model.
4. Estimation Results
4.1.Data Description
The paper employs annual time-series data for the period 1965 to 2012. The
data on national income
, imports
, external debt
, inflation
and tax revenue is obtained from the South African Reserve Bank (SARB), with real
variables being expressed in 2005 constant prices. On the other hand, the data on
underground economy
, covering the period 1965-2002, is taken from Embaye
(2007), who estimated the underground economy in South Africa using the currency
demand approach. The forward interpolation technique is then employed in this study
to obtain the missing values of underground economy for the period 2003-2012. In line
with Jayasinghe (2007), revenue gap
is calculated as an interaction of the size
of underground economy (as a fraction of GDP) and the total tax revenue. However,
the variable for unemployment
due to lack of reliable data.
is not included in the estimations of this study
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
4.2.Unit Root Test Results
The paper applies the ADF unit root test to ascertain the order of cointegration
of the variables and the optimal lag length for each series is selected on the basis of
the Akaike information criterion (AIC). The null hypothesis states that the series is non-
stationary and failure to reject the null indicates that there is a unit root. The results for
unit root test in both levels and first differences are reported in Table 1 and based on
the p-values, all variables are integrated of order one or
at 1% level of
significance. This implies that the long-run relationship might exist between revenue
gap, national income, imports, external debt, inflation and the underground economy.
Table 1: Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root tests
non-stationary in levels
non-stationary in first differences
Variable
Test statistic
p-value
0.708
0.701
0.668
0.750
0.194
0.904
Test statistic
p-value
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
RGP
GDP
IMP
-1.099
-1.117
-1.199
-0.989
-2.245
-0.381
-7.110
-4.483
-6.075
-4.708
-4.884
-6.368
DBT
INF
UGE
Notes: All variables are in logarithmic form.
4.3.Cointegration Test Results
Given that the variables are found to be integrated of the same order, the
Johansen multivariate cointegration procedure is employed to determine the presence
of long-run cointegrating relationship among them. The specification of the optimal lag
length by the AIC is 2 and Table 2 presents the cointegration test results, with the trace
statistic confirming the existence of cointegration among the variables.
Table 2. Cointegration test results
Maximum rank
Eigenvalue
0.765
Trace statistic
178.66
113.57
70.17
0.05 critical value
103.85
0
1
2
3
4
0.619
76.97
0.490
54.08
0.424
39.87
35.19
0.207
15.08
20.26
Table 3 then provides the results for the estimated parameters of the
normalised cointegrating equation together with their adjustment coefficients from the
unrestricted VECM. The Lagrange multiplier (LM) and the Jarque-Bera diagnostic
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
tests, given at the bottom of the table, indicate that the residuals are approximately
white noise at the 5% significance level. The results also show that all the coefficients
have the expected signs as suggested by the theory, but only the coefficients of
imports, external debt and the post-apartheid dummy are found to be statistically
significant at the 5% level. Nevertheless, the estimates of the adjustment parameters
for imports, inflation and the underground economy are highly insignificant and as a
result, the model is re-estimated with the restrictions of weak exogeneity on these
variables.
Table 3. Estimation results from the unrestricted VECM
Variables
RGP
GDP
IMP
DBT
INF
UGE
D1994
1.000
-
0.881
1.823
-1.186
-0.172
-0.725
0.136
(0.505)
(2.486)
(-7.967)
(-0.489)
(-0.914)
(3.051)
-0.141
-0.012
-0.010
0.081
-0.001
-0.016
-
-
(-4.736)
(-2.766)
(-0.452)
(1.253)
(-0.008)
(-0.727)
LM-statistic (12 lags) 38.88 [0.341]
Jarque-Bera statistic (with 12 degrees of freedom) 20.44 [0.059]
Notes: t-statistics in parentheses and p-values in square brackets; D1994 dummy is placed in the table for
convenience and the sign of its coefficient and t-statistic is taken as positive, but it is actually negative.
The estimated results from the restricted VECM are reported in Table 4 and
the diagnostic tests still suggest that the errors are approximately white noise.
Furthermore, the p-value for the chi-square test justifies that imports, inflation and
underground economy are weakly exogenous at the 5% significance level. The
adjustment coefficient on revenue gap also has the appropriate sign and it is
statistically significant. Therefore, about 12% of disequilibria from the shocks in the
previous year converge to the long-run equilibrium in the current year.
Table 4. Estimation results from the restricted VECM
Variables
RGP
GDP
IMP
DBT
INF
UGE
D1994
1.000
-
1.139
1.986
-1.308
-0.158
-1.102
0.143
(0.597)
(2.472)
(-8.033)
(-0.410)
(-1.270)
(3.042)
-0.116
-0.010
-
-
0.076
-
-
-
-
-
-
(-5.492)
(-3.063)
(1.313)
1.022 [0.796]
LM-statistic (12 lags) 38.63 [0.351]
Jarque-Bera statistic (with 12 degrees of freedom) 20.93 [0.051]
Notes: t-statistics in parentheses and p-values in square brackets; D1994 dummy is placed in
the table for convenience and the sign of its coefficient and t-statistic is taken as positive, but it is
actually negative.
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
The overall results are again consistent with theory and the coefficient of the
underground economy, which shows a positive association between revenue gap and
the shadow economy, has become marginally significant. This could therefore imply
that the South African revenue gap expands with the increasing value of all economic
activities that escape official statistics and remain untaxed by the government. This
argument is affirmed by similar findings from Salar et al. (2013) and Lacko (1999)
concerning other emerging economies. On the other hand, the observed negative and
significant relationship between imports and revenue gap renders support to the idea
that imports are subjected to more taxation than domestic activities because of certain
features of international trade such as specific entry and exit points, which tend to
make tax evasion difficult (see Sookram and Watson, 2005). Thus, the increasing
volume of imports in South Africa seems to result in a fall in missing revenues.
Alternatively, the positive and significant relationship between revenue gap
and external debt implies that the South African government depends on external debt
in order to finance the budget deficit resulting from missing revenues. The similar result
is reported by Salar et al. (2013) in the case of an emerging economy, Pakistan. On
the other hand, a negative and significant sign of the post-apartheid dummy confirms
that the tax policy reforms that South Africa introduced following the liberation in 1994
have led to a reduction in missing revenues by curbing tax evasion and promoting
greater compliance with the tax laws.
4.4.Granger Causality Test Results
The Granger causality test within the VECM is conducted to investigate all the
possible causal effects among variables of interest. The results, reported in Table 5,
reveal that imports and underground economomy Granger-cause revenue gap, while
revenue gap is found to Granger-cause national income and external debt.
Furthermore, the results show a unidirectional causality running from imports, external
debt and underground economy to national income, and from external debt and
underground economy to imports. Underground economy is also found to Granger-
cause external debt, while on the other hand, no causality is observed between
inflation and the rest of the variables.
Table 5. Granger causality test results
Variable
-
6.419**
-
1.383
1.084
-
6.846**
0.641
0.255
-
3.843
1.914
2.007
2.450
-
0.535
1.519
1.855
0.339
0.000
-
3.173
4.648*
3.761
1.008
6.505**
13.69***
7.567**
0.456
5.369*
5.809*
2.684
6.590**
0.896
5.105*
2.311
Notes: Wald statistics are reported; first row (column) represents the dependent (independent) variables; ***
significance at 1%; ** significance at 5%; * significance at 10%.
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
5.Conclusion
The paper provides an empirical analysis of the macroeconomic factors that
enhance revenue gap in South Africa using the multivariate cointegration techniques
for the period 1965 to 2012. The results from the cointegration analysis indicate that
the revenue gap in South Africa is negatively associated with the level of imports while
positively related to external debt and underground economy in the long-run. The
former finding is consistent with the notion that imports are subjected to more taxation
than domestic activities because of certain features of international trade such as
specific entry and exit points, which tend to make tax evasion difficult. On the other
hand, the positive relationship between external debt and tax gap shows that the South
African government relies upon external debt in order to finance its budget deficit due
to missing revenues. Furthermore, the observed negative effect of the post-apartheid
dummy confirms that the tax policy reforms that South Africa introduced following the
liberation in 1994 have led to a reduction in missing revenues by curbing tax evasion
and promoting greater compliance with the tax laws. The results from the Granger
causality test also show that there is a unidirectional causality running from imports
and underground economy to revenue gap, while revenue gap on the other hand is
found to Granger-cause national income and external debt in South Africa.
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Studies in Business and Economics no. 10(2)/2015
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