124-38-9

Basic information

• Product Name: CARBON DIOXIDE
• Synonyms: Dioxocarbon;5% CO2 IN AIR BASELINE CALIBRANT GAS;5% CO2 IN AIR HIGH LEVEL CALIBRANT GAS;5% CO2 IN AIR MIDLEVEL CALIBRANT GAS;Carbon dioxide Messer(R) CANgas, 99.995%;aerfixus;after-damp;Anhydride carbonique
• CAS NO: 124-38-9
• Molecular Formula: CO₂
• Molecular Weight: 44.01
• EINECS: 204-696-9
• Product Categories: Synthetic Reagents;CStable Isotopes;Alphabetic;C;CA - CG;refrigerants;Inorganics;Alphabetical Listings;CChemical Synthesis;Compressed and Liquefied GasesStable Isotopes;Gases;Stable Isotopes;Chemical Synthesis;Compressed and Liquefied Gases
• Mol File: 124-38-9.mol
• Article Data: 3958

Chemical Properties

• Melting Point: −78.5 °C(lit.)
• Boiling Point: -78.46°C
• Flash Point: 160.2°C
• Appearance: /colorless gas
• Density: 1.977（0℃）
• Vapor Density: 1.52 (vs air)
• Vapor Pressure: 56.5 atm ( 20 °C)
• Refractive Index: 1.0004
• Storage Temp.: −70°C
• Solubility: At 20 °C and at a pressure of 101 kPa, 1 volume dissolves in about 1 volume of water.
• Water Solubility: mL CO2/100mL H2O at 760mm: 171 (0°C), 88 (20°C), 36 (60°C) [MER06]
• Stability: Stable. Incompatible with chemically active metals, such as alkali metals.
• Merck: 13,1819
• BRN: 1900390
• CAS DataBase Reference: CARBON DIOXIDE(CAS DataBase Reference)
• NIST Chemistry Reference: CARBON DIOXIDE(124-38-9)
• EPA Substance Registry System: CARBON DIOXIDE(124-38-9)

Safety Data

• Safety Statements: 9
• RIDADR: UN 1013 2.2
• RTECS: FF6400000
• F: 4.5-31
• HazardClass: 2.2
• PackingGroup: III
• Hazardous Substances Data: 124-38-9(Hazardous Substances Data)

Usage

Uses

Different sources of media describe the Uses of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Solid carbon dioxide is used quite extensively to refrigerate dairy products, meat products, frozen foods, and other perishable foods while in transit. It is also used as a cooling agent in many industrial processes, such as grinding heat-sensitive materials, rubber tumbling, cold-treating metals, shrink fitting of machinery parts, vacuum cold traps, and so on. Gaseous carbon dioxide is used to carbonate soft drinks, for pH control in water treatment, in chemical processing, as a food preservative, as an inert blanket in chemical and food processing and metal welding, as a growth stimulant for plant life, for hardening molds and cores in foundries, and in pneumatic devices. Liquid carbon dioxide is used as an expendable refrigerant for freezing and chilling food products; for low-temperature testing of aviation, missile, and electronic components; for stimulation of oil and gas wells; for rubber tumbling; and for controlling chemical reactions. Liquid carbon dioxide is also used as a fire extinguishing agent in portable and built-in fire extinguishing systems.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the 18th most frequently produced chemical in the United States. It has numerous uses, including in refrigeration, in the manufacture of carbonated drinks (e.g., soda pop), in fire extinguishers, in providing an inert atmosphere (unreactive environment), and as a moderator for some types of nuclear reactors.
3. Carbon Dioxide is a gas obtained during fermentation of glucose (grain sugar) to ethyl alcohol. it is used in pressure-packed foods as a propellant or aerating agent and is also used in the carbonation of beverages. it is released as a result of the acid carbonate reaction of leavening agents in baked goods to produce an increase in volume. as a solid, it is termed dry ice and is used for freezing and chilling.
4. Carbon dioxide has several major uses： Solid carbon dioxide, dry ice, is used as a refrigerant. Another major use of carbon dioxide is in the soda industry. Soda is sodium carbonate monohydrate (Na2CO3? H2O). Other forms of soda include washing soda, which is sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3? 10H2O), and baking soda, which is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).Carbon dioxide is used as a gas in fire extinguishers, as an inflation gas for flotation devices, and as a propellant (for example in air guns). In recent years, the use of carbon dioxide as a supercritical fluid in green chemistry applications has increased. A supercritical fluid is a fluid with a temperature and pressure above its critical point.
5. In the carbonation of beverages; manufacture of carbonates; in fire prevention and extinction; for inerting flammable materials during manufacture, handling and transfer; as propellant in aerosols; as dry ice for refrigeration; to produce harmless smoke or fumes on stage; as rice fumigant; as antiseptic in bacteriology and in the frozen food industry. Supercritical or liquid CO2 used in extraction of caffeine and hops aroma; dry cleaning; metal degreasing; cleaning semiconductor chips; paint spraying; polymer modification. Environmentally benign alternative to potentially hazardous solvents in organic and polymer chemistry.

Description

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas present throughout the atmosphere and is an essential compound for life on Earth. It is found on other planets in the solar system. Mars’s icecaps are primarily frozen carbon dioxide and Venus’s atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide.

Chemical Properties

Different sources of media describe the Chemical Properties of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Carbon dioxide,CO2, also known as carbonic anhydride and carbonic acid gas, is a colorless,odorless gas that liquifies at -65 °C(-86 OF) and solidifies in dry ice at -78.2 °C(-107 OF). It is soluble in water,alcohol, and most alkaline solutions. In a relatively slow reaction,carbon dioxide hydrates in water to become carbonic acid and is corrosive. In petroleum production, the velocity of the carbon dioxide gas can increase the corrosion rate to very high levels,with the presence of salts becoming unimportant. Carbon dioxide is used in preparing carbonated beverages, fire extinguishers, dry ice refrigerants,and as a raw material in the production of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate using the Solvay procedure.
2. Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless, noncombustible gas.
3. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally as approximately 0.03% v/v of the atmosphere. It is a colorless, odorless, noncombustible gas with a faint acid taste. Solid carbon dioxide, also known as dry ice, is usually encountered as white-colored pellets or blocks.

Physical properties

Colorless, odorless and tasteless gas; 1.53 times heavier than air; density 1.80 g/L at 25°C; can be liquefied under pressure; liquefies at -56.6°C at 5.2 atm; density of liquid CO2 at 0°C and 34 atm 0.914 g/mL; solidifies to white snow-like flakes known as dry ice, density 1.56 g/cm3 at -79°C; dry ice sub limes to CO2 gas at -78.5°C; critical temperature 31°C; critical pressure 72.79 atm, critical density 94 cm3/mol; moderately soluble in water, solubility 173 mL and 88mL CO2/100 mL water at 0°C and 20°C, respectively; solubility increases with pressure.

Occurrence

Carbon dioxide is found throughout nature. Its concentration in the air is 0.036% by volume. It is the primary component of exhaled air of all animals. It also is the product of oxidation of all carbonaceous matter and an end prod?uct of complete combustion. It also is found dissolved in natural waters. It occurs in the earth’s crust and in volcanic eruptions. All plants depend on carbon dioxide and water for their survival, making their food by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is found in abun?dance in the atmospheres of many other planets and their moons throughout the solar system. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, which traps the infrared radiation re?radiated back by the earth’s surface, causing global warming and, therefore, changing the climate. The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere over a 30- year period from 1960 to 1990 has increased significantly from about 320 to 356 ppm by volume, which is widely attributed to the growth of industrial and automobile CO2 emission during this period. Carbon dioxide has extensive commercial applications. Some important applications of this compound include carbonation of beverages; as a fire extinguishing agent; in the manufacture of carbonates; as dry ice (solid CO2) for refrigeration; as an aerosol propellant; as a shielding gas for welding; as an inert atmosphere in preparation and handling of flammable substances; in cloud seeding; in fumigation of rice; to produce harmless smoke on stage; as an antiseptic; and as a supercritical fluid to extract organic pollutants for their analyses.

History

The discovery of carbon dioxide, credited to Joseph Black (1728–1799), played a critical role in supplanting the phlogiston theory and advancing the development of modern chemistry. Black, in his medical studies, was searching for a substance to dissolve kidney stones, but he switched his subject to a study of stomach acidity. Black was working with the carbonates magnesia alba (magnesium carbonate) and calcium carbonate (limestone) and observed that when magnesia alba was heated or reacted with acids, it produced a gas and a salt. Black, who published his work in 1756, called the gas “fixed air” and noted that it had properties similar to those described by Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577–1644) for spiritus sylvestrius. Spiritus sylvestrius was the gas produced during combustion processes, and van Helmont realized that this was the same gas produced during fermentation and when acids reacted with seashells.

Definition

Different sources of media describe the Definition of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. ChEBI: A one-carbon compound with formula CO2 in which the carbon is attached to each oxygen atom by a double bond. A colourless, odourless gas under normal conditions, it is produced during respiration by all animals, fungi and microorganism that depend directly or indirectly on living or decaying plants for food.
2. 1. The solution of carbon dioxide in a liquid under pressure, as in carbonated soft drinks. 2. The addition of carbon dioxide to compounds, e.g. the insertion of carbon dioxide into Grignard reagents.
3. carbon dioxide: A colourlessodourless gas, CO2, soluble in water,ethanol, and acetone; d. 1.977 g dm–3(0°C); m.p. –56.6°C; b.p. –78.5°C. It occursin the atmosphere (0.04% by volume)but has a short residence timein this phase as it is both consumedby plants during photosynthesis andproduced by respiration and by combustion.It is readily prepared in thelaboratory by the action of diluteacids on metal carbonates or of heaton heavy-metal carbonates. Carbondioxide is a by-product from themanufacture of lime and from fermentationprocesses.Carbon dioxide has a small liquidrange and liquid carbon dioxide isproduced only at high pressures. Themolecule CO2 is linear with each oxygenmaking a double bond to the carbon.Chemically, it is unreactive andwill not support combustion. It dissolves in water to give carbonicacid.Large quantities of solid carbondioxide (dry ice) are used in processesrequiring large-scale refrigeration. Itis also used in fire extinguishers as adesirable alternative to water formost fires, and as a constituent ofmedical gases as it promotes exhalation.It is also used in carbonateddrinks.The level of carbon dioxide in theatmosphere has increased by some12% in the last 100 years, mainly becauseof extensive burning of fossilfuels and the destruction of largeareas of rain forest. This has beenpostulated as the main cause of theaverage increase of 0.5°C in globaltemperatures over the same period,through the greenhouse effect.Steps are now being taken to preventfurther increases in atmospheric CO2concentration and subsequent globalwarming.

Preparation

Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product in many processes. It is pro duced as a by-product in the manufacture of lime from calcium carbonate: CaCO3 →CaO + CO2 CO2 also is derived from synthesis gas which is a mixture of CO, CO2, H2 and N2 from air obtained by steam reforming. Carbon dioxide also is obtained by combustion of natural gas: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O It also is obtained as a by-product in the Haber-Bosch process for the man ufacture of ammonia. The method involves passing steam and air over hot coke. Carbon dioxide also is produced along with ethanol from fermentation of carbohydrates by yeast: C6H12O6→2CO2 + 2C2H5OH In the laboratory, CO2 may be produced by the reaction of any carbonate with a dilute mineral acid: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Production Methods

Different sources of media describe the Production Methods of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Carbon dioxide is obtained industrially in large quantities as a byproduct in the manufacture of lime; by the incineration of coke or other carbonaceous material; and by the fermentation of glucose by yeast. In the laboratory it may be prepared by dropping acid on a carbonate.
2. Carbon dioxide accounts for 0.037% by volume of the atmosphere.Several methods can be used to produce large volumes of CO2. The combustion of coke or other carbonaceous substances produces results in CO2: C(coke) + O2 → CO2(g). In combustion processes, CO2 is concentrated by separating it from other gases using scrubbing and absorption techniques. Another source of CO2 involves the calcination (slow heating) of carbonates such as limestone, CaCO3: CaCO3(s)→ CaO + CO2(g).This process takes place in a lime kiln in the production of precipitated calcium carbonate at temperatures of from 500°C to 900°C. Carbon dioxide is also produced as a by-product in fermentation reactions to produce alcohols. An example is the fermentation of glucose, C6H12O6 to ethanol (C2H5OH): C6H12O6(aq)→ 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g). Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product in a number of syntheses, such as the Haber process, to produce ammonia.

General Description

An odorless, white solid. Can cause damaging frostbite. Noncombustible and nontoxic. Liquefies at -109°F. Can asphyxiate by displacement of air. Used as a refrigerant.

Air & Water Reactions

Water soluble. Forms carbonic acid, a mild acid in water.

Reactivity Profile

Contact of very cold liquid/solid carbon dioxide with water may result in vigorous or violent boiling of the product and extremely rapid vaporization due to the large temperature differences involved. If the water is hot, there is the possibility that a liquid "superheat" explosion may occur. Pressures may build to dangerous levels if liquid gas contacts water in a closed container. With water forms weak carbonic acid in nonhazardous reaction. Dusts of magnesium, lithium, potassium, sodium, zirconium, titanium, and some magnesium-aluminum alloys, and heated aluminum, chromium, and magnesium when suspended in carbon dioxide are ignitable and explosive. This is especially true in the presence of strong oxidizers, such as peroxides. The presence of carbon dioxide in solutions of aluminum hydride in ether can cause violent decomposition on warming the residue, [J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1948, 70, 877]. Dangers arising from the use of carbon dioxide in the fire prevention and extinguishing systems of confined volumes of air and flammable vapors are examined. The hazard associated with its use centers around the fact that large electrostatic discharges may be created that initiate explosion, [Quart. Saf. Summ., 1973, 44(1740, 10].

Hazard

Solid damaging to skin and tissue; keep away from mouth and eyes. Asphyxia.

Health Hazard

Different sources of media describe the Health Hazard of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Vapors may cause dizziness or asphyxiation without warning. Vapors from liquefied gas are initially heavier than air and spread along ground. Contact with gas or liquefied gas may cause burns, severe injury and/or frostbite.
2. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant. Exposureto about 9–10% concentration can causeunconsciousness in 5 minutes. Inhalation of3% CO2 can produce weak narcotic effects.Exposure to 2% concentration for severalhours can produce headache, increased bloodpressure, and deep respiration.

Fire Hazard

Non-flammable gases. Containers may explode when heated. Ruptured cylinders may rocket.

Agricultural Uses

Different sources of media describe the Agricultural Uses of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a compound of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a carbon atom. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, soluble in water, ethanol and acetone, and is 15 times heavier than air. Carbon dioxide occurs in the earth's atmosphere at an average of 0.04% by volume. The volume keeps changing, as it is consumed by plants during photosynthesis and replenished during respiration and combustion of biomass. CO2 is a major source of carbon for plants. Carbon dioxide is readily prepared in a laboratory by the action of dilute acids on carbonates. It is also obtained as a by-product from the manufacture of lime and from fermentation processes. Chemically, CO2 is not reactive and does not support combustion. It gives carbonic acid on dissolution in water. Carbon dioxide is one of the key materials for urea production. Liquid carbon dioxide is produced at high pressures and has a small liquid range. Solid carbon dioxide (known as dry ice), produced by subjecting gaseous carbon dioxide to pressure and temperature, is used in refrigeration, carbonated drinks and fire extinguishers. It is also a constituent of medical treatment, as it promotes exhalation. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 12% in the last 100 years, mainly due to the burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of rain forests. The increased level of carbon dioxide is the main cause for an average increase of 0.5℃ in the mean global temperature through the greenhouse effect. Environmentalists urge that measures be taken to prevent any further increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, and the subsequent global warming and melting of ice caps. In calcareous soils, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the soil air influences its pH; it is 8.5 when free calcium carbonate in the soil is in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide. An increase in carbon dioxide in the soil air decreases the pH to around 7.3. Applications of carbon dioxide include its use as (a) a refrigerant in either solid or liquid form, (b) an inert medium, (c) a chemical reactant, (d) a neutralizing agent for alkalis, (e) a pressurizing agent, and ( f ) an ingredient in the manufacture of aerated water.
2. Solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice. It is produced by cooling gaseous carbon dioxide under pressure.Dry ice is used in refrigeration, carbonated drinks and fire extinguishers. It is also a constituent of medical gases, as it promotes exhalation.

Pharmaceutical Applications

Carbon dioxide and other compressed gases such as nitrogen and nitrous oxide are used as propellants for topical pharmaceutical aerosols. They are also used in other aerosol products that work satisfactorily with the coarse aerosol spray that is produced with compressed gases, e.g. cosmetics, furniture polish, and window cleaners. The advantages of compressed gases as aerosol propellants are that they are less expensive; are of low toxicity; and are practically odorless and tasteless. Also, in comparison to liquefied gases, their pressures change relatively little with temperature. However, the disadvantages of compressed gases are that there is no reservoir of propellant in the aerosol and pressure consequently decreases as the product is used. This results in a change in spray characteristics. Additionally, if a product that contains a compressed gas as a propellant is actuated in an inverted position, the vapor phase, rather than the liquid phase, is discharged. Most of the propellant is contained in the vapor phase and therefore some of the propellant will be lost and the spray characteristics will be altered. Also, sprays produced using compressed gases are very wet. Valves, such as the vapor tap or double dip tube, are currently available and will overcome these problems. Carbon dioxide is also used to displace air from pharmaceutical products by sparging and hence to inhibit oxidation. As a food additive it is used to carbonate beverages and to preserve foods such as bread from spoilage by mold formation, the gas being injected into the space between the product and its packaging. Solid carbon dioxide is also widely used to refrigerate products temporarily, while liquid carbon dioxide, which can be handled at temperatures up to 318℃ under high pressure, is used as a solvent for flavors and fragrances, primarily in the perfumery and food manufacturing industries.

Safety Profile

An asphpant. See discussion of simple asphyxiants under ARGON. Experimental teratogenic and reproductive effects. Contact of solid carbon dioxide snow with the skin can cause burns. Dusts of magnesium, zirconium, titanium, and some magnesium-aluminum alloys igmte and then explode in COa atmospheres. Dusts of aluminum, chromium, and manganese ignite and then explode when heated in CO2. Several bulk metals wlll burn in CO2. Reacts vigorously with (Al + Na2O2), Cs2O, Mg(C2H5)2, Li, (Mg + Na2O2), K, KHC, Na, Na2C2, NaK, Ti. CO2 fire extingushers can produce highly incendiary sparks of 5-1 5 mJ at 10-20 kV by electrostatic discharge. Incompatible with acrylaldehyde, aziridme, metal acetylides, sodium peroxide.

Safety

In formulations, carbon dioxide is generally regarded as an essentially nontoxic material.

Potential Exposure

Gaseous Carbon dioxide is used to carbonate beverages; as a weak acid in the textile, leather, and chemical industries; in water treatment; and in the manufacture of aspirin and white lead; for hardening molds in foundries; in food preservation, in purging tanks and pipe lines; as a fire extinguisher, in foams; and in welding. Because it is relatively inert, it is utilized as a pressure medium. It is also used as a propellant in aerosols; to promote plant growth in green houses; it is used medically as a respiratory stimulant; in the manufacture of carbonates; and to produce an inert atmosphere when an explosive or flammable hazard exists. The liquid is used in fire extinguishing equipment; in cylinders for inflating life rafts; in the manufacturing of dry ice, and as a refrigerant. Dry ice is used primarily as a refrigerant. Occupational exposure to carbon dioxide may also occur in any place where fermentation processes may deplete oxygen with the formation of carbon dioxide, e.g., in mines, silos, wells, vats, ships’ holds, etc.

Physiological effects

Carbon dioxide is nonnally present in the atmosphere at about 0.035 percent by volume. It is also a nonnal end-product of human and animal metabolism. The exhaled breath contains up to 5.6 percent carbon dioxide. The greatest physiological effect of carbon dioxide is to stimulate the respiratory center, thereby controlling the volume and rate of respiration. It is able to cause dilation and constriction of blood vessels and is a vital constituent of the acid-base mechanism that controls the pH of the blood. Carbon dioxide acts as a stimulant and a depressant on the central nervous system. Increases in heart rate and blood pressure have been noted at a concentration of 7.6 percent, and dyspnea (labored breathing), headache, dizziness, and sweating occur if exposure at that level is prolonged. At concentrations of 10 percent and above, unconsciousness can result in I minute or less. Impainnent in perfonnance has been noted during prolonged exposure to concentrations of 3 percent carbon dioxide even when the oxygen concentration was 21 percent.

Environmental Fate

Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant, means it causes toxicity by displacing oxygen from the breathing atmosphere primarily in enclosed spaces or in open spaces due to sudden release of massive amounts of CO2 (for example, forests fire or natural emission during a volcanic eruption) and results in hypoxia. Thehumanbody produces about 12 000–13 000 mmols per day of CO2 and is excreted primarily via lungs. The CO2 concentration in plasma is maintained within a narrow range of 40±5 mm Hg (4.7–6 KPa). At plasma concentration of 22.5mmHg (3 KPa) or less death can occur within few minutes. The cause of death in breathing high concentration ofCO2 is due to CO2 poisoning, that results in rapid decrease in blood pH (respiratory acidosis, Low concentrations of CO2 in the air, or insufficient time for CO2 in blood to exchange with oxygen (O2) in air such as in the situations of hyperventilation, can lead to an increase in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis, >pH 7.45). The reaction of CO2 with water in the body is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrases (or carbonate dehydratases), which leads to formation of carbonic acid, followed by dissociation into protons (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-
). Carbonic acid is buffered in the cell primarily by hemoglobin and proteins, which have limited capacity.

storage

Extremely stable and chemically nonreactive. Store in a tightly sealed cylinder. Avoid exposure to excessive heat.

Shipping

Carbon dioxide (UN1013, UN2187), Hazard Class: 2.2; Labels: 2.2-Nonflammable compressed gas. Dry ice (UN1845), Hazard class 9 is considered a “miscellaneous hazardous material” and does not require a label. The gas and refrigerated liquid fall in Hazard Class 2.2 and there is no Packing Group; solid, dry ice falls in Hazard Class 9. Solid, dry ice carries the symbol “AW.” The letter “A” restricts the application of requirements of this subchapter to materials offered or intended for transportation by aircraft, unless the material is a hazardous substance or a hazardous waste. The letter “W” restricts the application of requirements of this subchapter to materials offered or intended for transportation by vessel, unless the material is a hazardous substance or a hazardous waste. Cylindersmust be transported in a secure upright position, in a wellventilated truck. Protect cylinder and labels from physical damage. The owner of the compressed gas cylinder is the only entity allowed by federal law (49CFR) to transport and refill them. It is a violation of transportation regulations to refill compressed gas cylinders without the express written permission of the owner.

Purification Methods

Pass the gas over CuO wire at 800o to oxidise CO and other reducing impurities (such as H2), then over copper dispersed on Kieselguhr at 180o to remove oxygen. Drying it at -78o removes the water vapour. Final purification is by vacuum distillation at liquid nitrogen temperature to remove non-condensable gases [Anderson et al. J Chem Soc 3498 1962]. Sulfur dioxide contaminant can be removed at 450o using silver wool combined with a plug of platinised quartz wool. Halogens are removed by using Mg, Zn or Cu, heated to 450o. [Glemsner in Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry (Ed. Brauer) Academic Press Vol I p 647 1963.]

Toxicity evaluation

The CO2 cycle is part of carbon cycle in the ecosystem. Carbon dioxide cycles in the environment (atmospheric air and surface water) through respiration (aerobic and anaerobic), photosynthesis, decomposition, and release from earth’s carbon sinks (fossil fuels – coal, petroleum, methane; and calcium carbonate rocks) during combustion. In water, dissolved CO2 reacts with calcium to form calcium carbonate and precipitates to the ocean floor. Few examples of most common reactions in the CO2 and carbon cycles in animals, plants, and the environment are presented below. Most of these reactions either use or produce energy.

Incompatibilities

Different sources of media describe the Incompatibilities of 124-38-9 differently. You can refer to the following data:
1. The substance decomposes on heating above 2000C producing toxic carbon monoxide. Reacts violently with strong bases and alkali metals. Various metal dusts from chemically active metals, such as magnesium, zirconium, titanium, aluminum, chromium, and manganese are ignitable and explosive when suspended and heated in carbon dioxide.
2. Carbon dioxide is generally compatible with most materials although it may react violently with various metal oxides or reducing metals such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and zirconium. Mixtures with sodium and potassium will explode if shocked.

Waste Disposal

Return refillable compressed gas cylinders to supplier. Vent to atmosphere

Regulatory Status

GRAS listed. Accepted for use in Europe as a food additive. Included in the FDA Inactive Ingredients Database (aerosol formulation for nasal preparations; IM and IV injections). Included in the Canadian List of Acceptable Non-medicinal Ingredients.

InChI:InChI=1/C2H2O5/c3-1(4)7-2(5)6/h(H,3,4)(H,5,6)

Synthetic route

methanol (67-56-1) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + carbon monoxide (201230-82-2) + hydrogen (1333-74-0)

Conditions	Yield
With water In gas production of H2 by steam reforming of methanol react.; catalyst: CeO2/Cu/Al2O3; detn. by gas chromy.;
With water In gas production of H2 by steam reforming of methanol react.; catalyst: Cu/Al2O3; detn. by gas chromy.;
With catayst:Pt/ γ -Al2O3 In neat (no solvent) Kinetics; total pressure: 1.36 - 5.84 bar, N2 carrier gas, 423 K; detected by gas chromy.;

furfural (98-01-1) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + 2-butenedioic acid (6915-18-0)

Conditions	Yield
With 2.0CuO*P2O5; oxygen In water at 115℃; under 6000.6 Torr; Autoclave;	A n/a B 55%

methanol (67-56-1) → methane (34557-54-5) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + carbon monoxide (201230-82-2) + hydrogen (1333-74-0)

Conditions	Yield
With dihydrogen peroxide; 5% Pt/Al2O3 In water at 20 - 290℃; under 760.051 - 18617.8 Torr; for 0.00277778h; Conversion of starting material; Liquid phase;	A n/a B n/a C n/a D 85%
With dihydrogen peroxide; 6 wt % Pd-Ni/Al2O3-MnO2 In water at 50 - 220℃; under 760.051 - 17066.3 Torr; for 0.00416667h; Conversion of starting material; Liquid phase;	A n/a B n/a C n/a D 80%
With water at 300℃; Reagent/catalyst;

poly(4-hydroxystyrene) + di-tert-butyl dicarbonate (24424-99-5) → poly(hydroxystyrene-co-tert-butoxycarbonyloxystyrene) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: poly(4-hydroxystyrene); di-tert-butyl dicarbonate; dmap In propyleneglycolmonomethyl ether acetate at 23℃; for 8h; Stage #2: With Dowex Mac-3 In propyleneglycolmonomethyl ether acetate	A 36.6% B n/a

1-butylene (106-98-9) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + buta-1,3-diene (106-99-0)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen at 370℃; for 20h;	A 5.1% B 57.3%
With oxygen In water at 420℃; under 760.051 Torr; for 8h; Reagent/catalyst; Flow reactor;

ethanol (64-17-5) → methane (34557-54-5) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + carbon monoxide (201230-82-2) + acetaldehyde (75-07-0)

Conditions	Yield
With cerium-nickel based oxyhydride In water at 450℃; Temperature;
With Ni-doped silica; water at 500℃; under 760.051 Torr; for 0.5h; Temperature; Reagent/catalyst;
With rhodium supported on Cobalt-based ceria In water at 326.84 - 526.84℃;
With water at 420℃; for 1h;
With water; hydrogen at 300℃; under 760.051 Torr;

isopropyl alcohol (67-63-0) + air → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With cobalt(II,III) oxide In water at 90℃; under 760.051 Torr; for 1h; Catalytic behavior; Activation energy; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature; Flow reactor;	90%

formaldehyd (50-00-0) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen at 240℃; under 760.051 Torr; Catalytic behavior; Reagent/catalyst; Flow reactor;	100%
With platinum In sulfuric acid at 49.9℃; Mechanism; galvanostatic oxidation;
With dipotassium peroxodisulfate In water at 48.9℃; for 2h; Kinetics; Mechanism; Thermodynamic data; activation energy; -ΔS; ΔH; different peroxodisulfate, formaldehyde concentrations, reaction times and temperature;

carbon monoxide (201230-82-2) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen at 180℃; Flow reactor;	100%
With H2O; selenium; platinum In water at 200℃; under 22501.8 Torr; for 20h;	43%
With hydrogen; oxygen at 80℃; under 760.051 Torr; Kinetics; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature;	40%

phenol (108-95-2) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With H2O In perchloric acid aq. HClO4; Electrochem. Process; oxidn. on boron-doped diamond anode; 1 M HClO4; at 25°C; anode potential 0-3.1 V; products monitored by HPLC;	95%
With O40PW12(3-)*Co(2+)*H(1+); dihydrogen peroxide In water; glycerol at 79.84℃; for 1h; Reagent/catalyst; Autoclave; Green chemistry;	48.1%
With dihydrogen peroxide; pyrographite In water at 105 - 120℃; for 0.5h; Product distribution; investigation of the ctaytic oxidation of phenol by hydrogen peroxide on an activated carbon surface;

formaldehyd (50-00-0) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen at 240℃; under 760.051 Torr; Catalytic behavior; Reagent/catalyst; Flow reactor;	100%
With platinum In sulfuric acid at 49.9℃; Mechanism; galvanostatic oxidation;
With dipotassium peroxodisulfate In water at 48.9℃; for 2h; Kinetics; Mechanism; Thermodynamic data; activation energy; -ΔS; ΔH; different peroxodisulfate, formaldehyde concentrations, reaction times and temperature;

formic acid (64-18-6) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With Ag20Pd80 MIL-101 In water at 80℃; for 0.25h; Activation energy; Catalytic behavior; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature;	100%
With [(HN(CH2CH2PiPr2)2)Fe(H)2(CO)] In toluene; tert-butyl alcohol at 90℃; for 6h; Catalytic behavior; Kinetics; Reagent/catalyst; Solvent; Temperature;	100%
With C19H38MnNO4P2 In 1,4-dioxane for 1h; Catalytic behavior; Reagent/catalyst;	36%

5-cyclopentylidene-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane-4,6-dione (3968-30-7) → butatriene (2873-50-9) + ethene (74-85-1) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + cyclohexa-1,3-diene (1165952-91-9) + acetone (67-64-1) + benzene (71-43-2)

Conditions	Yield
With variation of temp. at 550℃; Product distribution;	A 4% B 11.9% C 100% D 39.2% E 101.9 % F 3.3%

diethyl sulphide (352-93-2) + 2-Oxobutyric acid (600-18-0) → diethyl sulphide (70-29-1) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + propionic acid (802294-64-0)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen; methylene blue In pyridine; acetonitrile for 2h; Irradiation;	A 100% B n/a C 52%

sarcosine (107-97-1) → formaldehyd (50-00-0) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + methylamine (74-89-5)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogenchloride; sodium hydroxide; sodium perchlorate; chlorine at 24.9℃; Mechanism; Rate constant; Equilibrium constant; multistep reaction: 1.) water, 298 deg K, 2.) water, 298 deg K; reactions under var. conditions;	A 100% B n/a C n/a

2-Oxobutyric acid (600-18-0) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In acetonitrile for 20h; Product distribution; Irradiation; decarboxylation, other solvents;	100%

α-ketoglutaric acid (328-50-7) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In acetonitrile for 20h; Product distribution; Irradiation; decarboxylation, other solvents;	100%

carbon monoxide (201230-82-2) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With oxygen at 180℃; Flow reactor;	100%
With H2O; selenium; platinum In water at 200℃; under 22501.8 Torr; for 20h;	43%
With hydrogen; oxygen at 80℃; under 760.051 Torr; Kinetics; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature;	40%

2-oxo-propionic acid (127-17-3) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In acetonitrile for 20h; Product distribution; Mechanism; Quantum yield; Irradiation; other solvents, decarboxylation;	100%
In neat (no solvent) byproducts: acetaldehyde; Irradiation (UV/VIS); 193 nm excimer laser photolysis of neat pyruvic acid or a mixt. of pyruvic acid and argon; monitoring by IR;

toluene (108-88-3) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With α-manganese oxide; oxygen at 290℃; Temperature; [1,2]-Wittig Rearrangement; Inert atmosphere;	100%
With oxygen at 258℃; under 760.051 Torr; Kinetics; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature; Inert atmosphere;	100%
With oxygen at 230 - 240℃; for 0.5h; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature; Inert atmosphere;	99.9%

methane (34557-54-5) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + H2O

Conditions	Yield
With yttrium barium cuprate at 400℃; under 760 Torr; Product distribution;	A 100% B n/a
With oxygen; La1.25Sr0.75NiO4 at 580℃; Kinetics; Mechanism; Thermodynamic data; other catalysts, variation of O2-pressure; activation energy;

methanol (67-56-1) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + hydrogen (1333-74-0)

Conditions	Yield
With water at 20℃; pH=4.5; Quantum yield; UV-irradiation; Inert atmosphere;	A n/a B 100%
With water at 350℃; Catalytic behavior; Temperature; Flow reactor;	A n/a B 14%
With catalyst: TiO2/2percent-wt Pt In neat (no solvent) byproducts: formaldehyde; Irradiation (UV/VIS); photolysis (500 W Xe-lamp 350 and 400 nm, 25°C); IR spectroscopy, gas chromy.;

carbon monoxide (201230-82-2) + oxygen (80937-33-3) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
palladium In neat (no solvent) oxidn. of CO on Pd catalyst at 120°C under atmospheric pressure;	100%
zirconium(IV) oxide In neat (no solvent) oxidn. of CO on ZrO2 catalyst at 370°C under atmospheric pressure;	100%
With catalyst: Pd-ZrO2 In neat (no solvent) oxidn. of CO on Pd catalyst deposited on ZrO2 at 152°C under atmospheric pressure;	100%

formic acid (64-18-6) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + hydrogen (1333-74-0)

Conditions	Yield
With sodium formate at 20℃; Catalytic behavior; Green chemistry; chemoselective reaction;	A n/a B 100%
With [pentamethylcyclopentadienyl*Ir(2,2′-bpyO)(OH)][Na] In water at 80℃; for 1h; Reagent/catalyst;	A n/a B 99%
With (1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylcyclopentadienyl)Ir[κ2(N,N’)-(S,S)-N-triflyl-1,2-diphenylethylenediamine] In 1,2-dimethoxyethane; water at 0℃; for 53h; Reagent/catalyst; Time; Temperature; Solvent;	A n/a B 85%

pyridine (110-86-1) + cis-(N,N-dimethyl-ethylenediamine)diiodoplatinum(II) (104034-36-8) + thallous 2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoate (75669-81-7) + Hexafluorobenzene (392-56-3) → trans-platinum(I)2(pyridine)2 (15227-44-8, 15227-45-9, 32162-03-1) + c(N),d(N')-{N,N-dimethyl-N'-pentafluorophenylethane-1,2-diaminato(1-)}-b-iodo-a-pyridineplatinum(II) (127433-44-7, 117533-83-2) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In pyridine Heating under stirring (110-115°C, N2, 15 min).; Cooling, evapn. to dryness (vacuum), washed (light petroleum), dried, extn. with Me2CO, filtn. of TlI, evapn. to dryness, washed (cold EtOH), recrystn. (pyridine/water and acetone/ light petroleum), elem. anal.;	A 5% B 30% C 100%

carbon oxide sulfide (463-58-1) + dihydrogen peroxide (7722-84-1) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + sulfuric acid (7664-93-9) + water (7732-18-5)

Conditions	Yield
With potassium sulfate; potassium hydrogensulfate; potassium peroxomonosulfate In water Kinetics; oxidation of OCS studied in round-bottom Pyrex bulbs, acid-water mixtures introduced into bulbs and degassed, bulb reactors filled with with a gas mixture slightly above 1 atm total pressure with a typical mixing ratio of OCS:Ar:He=40:60:700 Torr; gas chromy. and mass spectroscopy applied for determination of product content;	A 100% B n/a C n/a
With sulfuric acid In water Kinetics; oxidation of OCS studied in round-bottom Pyrex bulbs, acid-water mixtures introduced into bulbs and degassed, bulb reactors filled with with a gas mixture slightly above 1 atm total pressure with a typical mixing ratio of OCS:Ar:He=40:60:700 Torr; gas chromy. and mass spectroscopy applied for determination of product content;	A 100% B n/a C n/a

pyridine (110-86-1) + cis-(N,N-dimethyl-ethylenediamine)diiodoplatinum(II) (104034-36-8) + thallous 2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoate (75669-81-7) + Pentafluorobenzene (363-72-4) → c(N),d(N')-{N,N-dimethyl-N'-(2,3,5,6-tetrafluorophenyl)ethane-1,2-diaminato(1-)}-b-iodo-a-pyridineplatinum(II) (127419-27-6, 117533-79-6) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In pyridine Heating under stirring (100-110°C, N2, 30 min).; Cooling, evapn. to dryness (vacuum), washed (light petroleum), dried, extn. with Me2CO, filtn. of TlI, evapn. to dryness, washed (cold EtOH), recrystn. (pyridine/water and ether/light petroleum), elem. anal.;	A 31% B 100%

tellurium(IV) oxide (7446-07-3) + Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + tellurium(IV) fluoride (15192-26-4)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 160°C for 56 h;	A n/a B 100%

chromium(VI) oxide + Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) → chromyl fluoride (7788-96-7) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 185°C for 12 h;	A 100% B n/a

Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) + molybdenum(VI) oxide → molydenum(VI) oxofluoride (14459-59-7) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 190°C for 31 h;	A 100% B n/a

Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) + tungsten(VI) oxide → (WOF4)4 (13520-79-1) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 180°C for 48 h;	A 100% B n/a

Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) + vanadia → oxovanadium(V) fluoride + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 210°C for 34 h;	A 100% B n/a

niobium(V) oxide + Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) → niobium pentafluoride (7783-68-8) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) Nb2O5:COF2 = 1:8; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 200°C for 36 h;	A 100% B n/a

tantalum(V) oxide + Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) → tantalum pentafluoride (7783-71-3) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 210°C for 46 h;	A 100% B n/a

Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) + uranium(VI) trioxide → uranyl fluoride (13536-84-0) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 180°C for 45 h or at 210°C for 27 h;	A 100% B n/a

selenium(IV) oxide (7446-08-4) + Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) → selenyl fluoride (7783-43-9) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 200°C for 50 h;	A 100% B n/a

Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) + tin(IV) oxide → tin(IV) fluoride (7783-62-2) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With cesium fluoride In neat (no solvent) SnO2:COF2 = 1:4; mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 220°C for 70 h in presence of a small amt. of CsF;	A 100% B n/a
In neat (no solvent) SnO2:COF2 = 1:4; mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 210°C for 80 h;	A 50% B n/a

Carbonyl fluoride (353-50-4) + silica gel (112926-00-8, 7631-86-9) → carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + silicon tetrafluoride (7783-61-1)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) slight excess over the stoich. amt. of COF2 required; reaction mixt. heated in a stainless steel or monel cylinder at 160°C for 36 h;	A n/a B 100%

ZrO(2+)*CO3(2-)*2ZrO2*6H2O=ZrOCO3*2ZrO2*6H2O → carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
In neat (no solvent) calcinating;;	100%
In neat (no solvent) calcinating;;	100%
With water In water decomposition in boiling H2O with formation of CO2;;

pyridine (110-86-1) + dichloro(ethylenediamine)platinum(II) (14096-51-6) + Pentafluorobenzene (363-72-4) → {N,N'-bis(2,3,5,6-tetrafluorophenyl)ethane-1,2-diaminato(2-)}dipyridineplatinum(II) (92181-58-3) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9)

Conditions	Yield
With K2CO3 In pyridine N2-atmosphere; stirring (115°C, 1 h); evapn. (vac.), light petroleum addn., stirring (1 h), decanting, extg. (Me2CO), filtering, concg., light petroleum addn., crystn. on concg., re crystn. (Me2CO / light petroleum);	A 44% B 100%
With K2CO3 In pyridine N2-atmosphere; stirring (115 - 120°C, 1 h); evapn. (vac.), light petroleum addn., stirring (1 h), decanting, extg. (Me2CO), filtering, concg., light petroleum addn., crystn. on concg., re crystn. (Me2CO / light petroleum);	A 21% B 100%
With Tl2CO3 In pyridine N2-atmosphere; stirring (115 - 120°C, 1 h); evapn. (vac.), light petroleum addn., stirring (1 h), decanting, extg. (Me2CO), filtering, concg., light petroleum addn., crystn. on concg., re crystn. (Me2CO / light petroleum);	A 24% B 100%
With KHCO3 In pyridine N2-atmosphere; stirring (110 - 115°C, 1 h); evapn. (vac.), light petroleum addn., stirring (1 h), decanting, extg. (Me2CO), filtering, concg., light petroleum addn., crystn. on concg., re crystn. (Me2CO / light petroleum);	A 30% B 60%
With KHCO3 In pyridine N2-atmosphere; stirring (80°C, 1.5 h); evapn. (vac.), light petroleum addn., stirring (1 h), decanting, extg. (Me2CO), filtering, concg., light petroleum addn., crystn. on concg., re crystn. (Me2CO / light petroleum);	A 7% B 7%

bis(diethylamino)dimethylsilane (4669-59-4) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → bis(N,N-diethylcarbamoyloxy)dimethylsilane (6143-69-7)

Conditions	Yield
In tetrahydrofuran at 20℃;	100%
With diethylamine

1-bromo-2-isopropylbenzene (7073-94-1) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 2-isopropylbenzoic acid (2438-04-2)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 1-bromo-2-isopropylbenzene With n-butyllithium In tetrahydrofuran; hexane at -78℃; for 0.5h; Inert atmosphere; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran; hexane at -78 - 20℃; for 1.33333h; Inert atmosphere;	100%
(i) Mg, (ii) /BRN= 1900390/; Multistep reaction;
Stage #1: 1-bromo-2-isopropylbenzene With magnesium Stage #2: carbon dioxide In diethyl ether at 20℃; Cooling;

1-bromo-3-isopropylbenzene (5433-01-2) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 3-isopropylbenzoic acid (5651-47-8)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 1-bromo-3-isopropylbenzene With magnesium In tetrahydrofuran at 50 - 60℃; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran for 0.666667h; Stage #3: With hydrogenchloride In tetrahydrofuran; water	100%
Stage #1: 1-bromo-3-isopropylbenzene With tert.-butyl lithium In diethyl ether; pentane at -78℃; for 0.166667h; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In diethyl ether; pentane Stage #3: With hydrogenchloride In diethyl ether; water; pentane	92%
(i) Mg, Et2O, (ii) /BRN= 1900390/, (iii) aq. HCl; Multistep reaction;
Stage #1: 1-bromo-3-isopropylbenzene With magnesium In tetrahydrofuran at 60℃; Inert atmosphere; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran for 0.666667h; Inert atmosphere; Stage #3: With hydrogenchloride In tetrahydrofuran; water

carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + 1-bromo-2-methylnaphtalene (2586-62-1) → 2-methyl-1-naphthoic acid (1575-96-8)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: carbon dioxide; 1-bromo-2-methylnaphtalene With n-butyllithium In tetrahydrofuran at -78 - 20℃; Stage #2: With hydrogenchloride In tetrahydrofuran; water	100%
(i) Li, Et2O, (ii) /BRN= 1900390/; Multistep reaction;
With lithium 1.) ether, 2 h, 2.) ether; Yield given. Multistep reaction;

carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + methyl tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]decane-2-carboxylate (22635-52-5) → 2-(methoxycarbonyl)adamantane-2-carboxylic acid (33101-12-1)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: methyl tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]decane-2-carboxylate With lithium diisopropyl amide In tetrahydrofuran at -70℃; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran at 20℃; for 24h; Further stages.;	100%
Stage #1: methyl tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]decane-2-carboxylate With lithium diisopropyl amide In tetrahydrofuran for 1h; Cooling; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran at -78 - 20℃; for 24h;	89%
With n-butyllithium In tetrahydrofuran; hexane

carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + 1,1-dibromomethane (74-95-3) → dibromoacetic acid (631-64-1)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 1,2-dibromomethane With 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinylmagnesium chloride lithium chloride complex In tetrahydrofuran; toluene at -78℃; for 0.5h; Inert atmosphere; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran; toluene at -78℃; for 3h;	100%
(i) nBuLi, CH2Cl2, THF, (ii) /BRN= 1900390/; Multistep reaction;

oxirane (75-21-8) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → [1,3]-dioxolan-2-one (96-49-1)

Conditions	Yield
With 3-(2-hydroxylethyl)-1-(3-aminopropyl)imidazolium bromide grafted onto divinylbenzene polymer (PDVB-HEIMBr) at 140℃; under 15001.5 Torr; for 3h; Autoclave;	100%
With bis[(1R,2R)-N,N'-bis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-salicylidene)cyclohexane-1,2-diaminoaluminium(III)]oxide; tetrabutylammomium bromide at 26℃; under 2280.15 Torr; for 24h;	100%
With choline chloride; zinc dibromide at 110℃; under 11251.1 Torr; for 1h; Autoclave; neat (no solvent);	100%

trimethylene oxide (503-30-0) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → trimethylene carbonate (2453-03-4)

Conditions	Yield
With bis(acetylacetonate)oxovanadium; tetrabutylammomium bromide In toluene at 60℃; under 26252.6 Torr; for 8h; Autoclave; Cooling with ice; chemoselective reaction;	100%
tetraphenyl stibonium iodide at 100℃; under 36775.4 Torr; for 4h; Product distribution; Var. catalysts, solvents, time and temp.;	96%
tetraphenyl stibonium iodide at 100℃; under 36775.4 Torr; for 4h; Var. catalysts, solvents, time and temp.;	96%

2-methyl-1,2-epoxypropane (558-30-5) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 4,4-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one (4437-69-8)

Conditions	Yield
With tetrabutylammomium bromide at 60℃; under 7500.75 Torr; for 72h; Time; Autoclave;	100%
With 2-(bis(5-(tert-butyl)-2-hydroxybenzyl)amino)-N,N,N-trimethylethan-1-aminium iodide at 120℃; Reagent/catalyst; Inert atmosphere; Schlenk technique;	99%
With tetrabutylammomium bromide In neat (no solvent) at 100℃; under 22502.3 Torr; for 8h;	99%

ethyloxirane (106-88-7) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 1,2-butylene carbonate (4437-85-8, 90970-72-2, 90971-04-3, 127128-77-2)

Conditions	Yield
tetrabutylphosphonium iodide; tributyltin iodide at 60℃; for 5h; Product distribution; other time, other components of catalyst; effect on the yield;	100%
With triphenylphosphine; sodium iodide; phenol at 120℃; under 30002.4 Torr; for 4h;	99%
With 18-crown-6-potassium iodide; SalenAlEt at 25℃; under 4500.36 Torr; for 14h;	99%

Allyl glycidyl ether (106-92-3) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 4-allyloxymethyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one (826-29-9)

Conditions	Yield
With lithium bromide In N,N-dimethyl-formamide at 80℃; under 1500.15 Torr; for 12h;	100%
With tetrabutylammomium bromide at 85℃; under 760.051 Torr; for 20h; Schlenk technique;	100%
With potassium iodide In neat (no solvent) at 80℃; under 5250.53 Torr; for 4h; Catalytic behavior; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature; Pressure; Autoclave;	100%

styrene oxide (96-09-3) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 4-Phenyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one (4427-92-3)

Conditions	Yield
With tert.-butylhydroperoxide; tetrabutylammomium bromide; zinc dibromide; silica gel; gold In decane at 80℃; under 60004.8 Torr; for 4h;	100%
With [aluminum((1R,2R)-N,N′-bis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-salicylidene)cyclohexane-1,2-diamine)2O]; tetrabutylammomium bromide at 60℃; under 3750.38 Torr; for 24h; Mechanism; Reagent/catalyst; Temperature; Pressure; Autoclave;	100%
With tetrabutylammomium bromide at 105℃; under 760.051 Torr; for 20h; Schlenk technique;	100%

methanol (67-56-1) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → Methyl formate (107-31-3)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: carbon dioxide With phenylsilane In N,N-dimethyl acetamide at 50℃; under 22502.3 Torr; for 4h; pH=Ca. 1.2; Autoclave; Stage #2: methanol In N,N-dimethyl acetamide Pressure; Temperature; Reagent/catalyst;	100%
With hydrogen; HCO2Ru3(CO)10 at 125℃; under 12928.7 Torr; for 24h; Product distribution; other catalysts, various reaction conditions;
With hydrogen; HCO2Ru3(CO)10 at 125℃; under 12928.7 Torr; for 24h; Yield given;

1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (635-46-1) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-1-carboxylic acid lithium salt (121565-21-7)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline With n-butyllithium In diethyl ether; hexane at -78 - 20℃; for 2h; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In diethyl ether; hexane at -78℃;	100%
Stage #1: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline With n-butyllithium In diethyl ether at -78 - 20℃; Cooling with acetone-dry ice; Inert atmosphere; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In diethyl ether at -78℃; Cooling with ethanol-dry ice;	100%
Stage #1: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline With n-butyllithium In diethyl ether at -78℃; for 17h; Schlenk technique; Inert atmosphere; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In diethyl ether at -78 - 20℃; Schlenk technique;	100%
With n-butyllithium 1) THF, hexane, -78 deg C, 2) room temp.; Multistep reaction;
Stage #1: 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline With n-butyllithium In hexane; tert-butyl methyl ether at -20 - 20℃; Schlenk technique; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran; diethyl ether; hexane; tert-butyl methyl ether at -78 - 20℃; Schlenk technique;

2-[2-(vinyloxy)ethoxymethyl]oxirane (16801-19-7) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 3-(2-vinyloxyethoxy)-1,2-propylene carbonate (54107-24-3)

Conditions	Yield
With potassium iodide In 1,4-dioxane at 140℃; for 3h; Product distribution; other temperatures, other reagents;	100%
With triethylamine In 1,4-dioxane at 150℃; for 3h; rotating steel autoclave;	92%
With triethylamine In 1,4-dioxane at 150℃; for 5h; Product distribution; other reaction times; other temperatures, without solvent.;	99.9 % Turnov.
With potassium iodide In 1,4-dioxane at 140℃; for 3h; Yield given;

α-ketoglutaric acid (328-50-7) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → 1-hydroxy-propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid (320-77-4)

Conditions	Yield
With methyl viologen radical cation; isocitrate dehydrogenase In water electrochemical reaction: glassy carbon cathode, -0.95 V vs SCE, tris buffer, NaHCO3;	100%
With Paraquat; hydrogen cation; isocitrate dehydrogenase; cadmium(II) sulphide In various solvent(s) Product distribution; Rate constant; Ambient temperature; Irradiation; Michaelis-Menten constant;
With triethanolamine; Paraquat; hydrogen cation; isocitrate dehydrogenase; cadmium(II) sulphide Ambient temperature; Irradiation;
With tris(2,2’-bipyridine)ruthenium(II); 1.7E-4 M MV(2+); 8.3E-3 M DL-dithiohreitol; NADP+; sodium hydrogencarbonate; manganese(ll) chloride; isocitrate dehydrogenase In water Irradiation;

n-Butyl chloride (109-69-3) + carbon dioxide (124-38-9) → n-butyl formate (592-84-7)

Conditions	Yield
With hydrogen; sodium hydrogencarbonate; {W(CO)5Cl}(1-) In tetrahydrofuran at 150℃; under 80 - 85 Torr; for 24h;	100%

carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + 1-bromo-2-methoxy-4,5-dimethylbenzene (33500-88-8) → 2-methoxy-4,5-dimethylbenzoic acid (91061-36-8)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 1-bromo-2-methoxy-4,5-dimethylbenzene With n-butyllithium In tetrahydrofuran; hexane at -70℃; for 2h; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In hexane at -50℃; for 2.5h;	100%
With n-butyllithium 1.) THF, pentane, -100 deg C, 5 min, 2.) THF, pentane, -100 deg C, 25 min; Yield given. Multistep reaction;

carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + 1-bromo-4-methoxynaphthalene (5467-58-3) → 4-methoxy-1-naphthoic acid (13041-62-8)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 1-bromo-4-methoxynaphthalene With n-butyllithium In tetrahydrofuran; hexane at -78℃; for 0.333333h; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran; hexane at -78℃; for 0.333333h;	100%
With magnesium 2.) ether; Yield given. Multistep reaction;

carbon dioxide (124-38-9) + 4-bromo[2.2]paracyclophane (1908-61-8) → [2.2]paracyclophane-4-carboxylic acid (20586-49-6)

Conditions	Yield
Stage #1: 4-bromo[2.2]paracyclophane With n-butyllithium In diethyl ether Inert atmosphere; Schlenk technique; Stage #2: carbon dioxide Schlenk technique;	100%
Stage #1: 4-bromo[2.2]paracyclophane With iodine; magnesium In tetrahydrofuran for 4h; Heating; Stage #2: carbon dioxide In tetrahydrofuran for 18h;	97%
With oxonium; magnesium	96%

Upstream product

• 124-04-9 Adipic acid 
• 187737-37-7 propene 
• 74-84-0 ethane 
• 74-98-6 propane 
• 4159-03-9 2,5-diphenyl-[1,4]dithiine 
• 5070-13-3 bis-(p-nitrophenyl) carbonate 
• 28356-58-3 pyridine-4-acetic acid 
• 4530-20-5 BOC-glycine 
• 105995-50-4 magnesium 4-nitrobenzyl malonate 
• 103-82-2 phenylacetic acid 
• 503-74-2 3-methylbutyric acid 
• 300-57-2 allylbenzene 
• 79-21-0 peracetic acid 
• 556-64-9 methyl thiocyanate 

Downstream Products

• 6314-29-0 10-Methyl-phenthiazin-carbonsaeure-(1) 
• 107624-59-9 10-methyl-10H-phenothiazine-1-carboxylic acid 
• 27026-00-2 5-tert-butoxy-3-phenyl-isoxazole-4-carboxylic acid 
• 27026-02-4 5-tert-butylsulfanyl-3-phenyl-isoxazole-4-carboxylic acid 
• 27025-94-1 5-(2-chloro-phenyl)-3-methoxy-isoxazole-4-carboxylic acid 
• 27025-99-6 5-isopropoxy-3-phenyl-isoxazole-4-carboxylic acid 
• 62398-82-7 3-(2-isopropylimino-propylidene)-4-phenyl-[1,2,4]oxathiazolidin-5-one 
• 16188-20-8 3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-methylisothiazole-4-carboxylic acid 
• 62398-83-8 3-(2-isopropylimino-2-phenyl-ethylidene)-4-methyl-[1,2,4]oxathiazolidin-5-one 
• 321-12-0 2-fluoro-5-methyl-benzoic acid 
• 1118-47-4 4,4-dimethylpentanoic acid 
• 595-37-9 2,2-dimethylbutyric acid 
• 38142-43-7 (+)-(R)-3-(4-Methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl)-3-butensaeuremethylester 
• 46725-45-5 dimethyl 4,6-dimethylbenzene-1,3-dicarboxylate 

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CO activation pathways and the mechanism of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis

Unresolved mechanistic details of monomer formation in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) and of its oxygen rejection routes are addressed here by combining kinetic and theoretical analyses of elementary steps on representative Fe and Co surfaces saturated w

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Titanium(IV) oxide (TiO2) having both smaller and larger gold (Au) particles was successfully prepared by a multi-step (MS) photodeposition method. When 0.25 wt% Au loading per photodeposition was repeated four times, smaller and larger Au particles having average diameters of 1.4 and 13 nm, respectively, were fixed on TiO2, and the Au/TiO2 sample exhibited strong photoabsorption around 550 nm due to surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of the larger Au particles. Various Au/TiO2 samples were prepared by changing the Au loading per photodeposition and the number of photodepositions. Effects of the conditions in MS photodeposition and sample calcination on Au particle distribution and photoabsorption properties were investigated. These samples were used for hydrogen (H2) formation from 2-propanol and mineralization of acetic acid in aqueous suspensions under irradiation of visible light. In the case of H2 formation under deaerated conditions, the reaction rate of Au/TiO2 having both larger and smaller particles was 4 times higher than that of the Au/TiO2 sample without smaller Au particles, indicating that smaller Au particles acted effectively as a co-catalyst, that is, as reduction sites for H2 evolution. On the other hand, in the case of mineralization of acetic acid under aerated conditions, carbon dioxide formation rates were independent of the presence of smaller Au particles, indicating that the smaller Au particles had little effect on the mineralization of acetic acid. To extend the possibility of Au/TiO2 for H2 formation under irradiation of visible light, H2 formation from ammonia (NH3) as biomass waste was examined under deaerated conditions; NH3 was decomposed to H 2 and nitrogen with a stoichiometric ratio of 3:1. The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014.

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Conversion of methyl lactate to acrylates over modified NaY zeolite catalysts

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Photocatalytic degradation of acetic acid in the presence of visible light-active TiO2-reduced graphene oxide photocatalysts

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Abstract Palladium loaded AlPO4 catalysts were synthesised and characterised by XRD, IR, UV-vis spectroscopy, temperature programmed desorption (TPD) and temperature programmed surface reaction (TPSR). The Pd2+ ions of the dispersed palladium on the amorphous surface of AlPO4 are in D4h symmetry. They can partially be reduced into Pd0 even in dynamic conditions by a mixture of butan-2-ol and oxygen. TPD/TPSR showed that the active sites are formed by the couple PdO/Pd. The presence of PdO on the surface favours the production of methyl ethyl ketone (MEK). The CO2 formation was never observed below 100 °C. Moreover, desorption of the MEK takes place in two waves arising from two different types of sites. Only the reactivity of the first set of sites which are located around 80 °C was considered in the present study. As a matter of fact, the oxidation of butan-2-ol into MEK (one) appear around 85 °C and stop before 100 °C. Oscillations of the temperature of the catalyst bed were also recorded but their amplitude never exceeds 7 °C. An oscillatory regime appears also for butan-2-ol pressures ranging from 0.61 to 1.65 kPa and for a total flow rate between 80 and 260 mL min-1. The oscillating oxidation of butan-2-ol is accompanied by a significant enhancement of the methyl ethyl ketone production.

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Improving heterogeneous photo-Fenton catalytic degradation of toluene under visible light irradiation through Ba-doping in BiFeO3 nanoparticles

In this study, we prepared Bi1-xBaxFeO3 MNPs (x?=?0.03, 0.08, 0.12) via a rapid sol gel procedure to improve heterogeneous photo-Fenton catalytic degradation of toluene under visible light irradiation. We found that Ba-substitution in BiFeO3 magnetic nanoparticles (BFO MNPs) can play an important role in improving the photo-Fenton catalytic degradation of toluene from aqueous solution. Increasing the Ba doping level up to 12%, greatly affect in iron redox cycling and oxygens vacancies as compared to pure BFO MNPs. The iron redox cycling and existence of oxygen on the surface of Ba doped BFO had been affected by the photo-Fenton process. The scavenger effect evident from the study results confirmed that the photo-Fenton catalytic degradation of toluene from aqueous solution was mainly controlled by the formation characteristics of hydroxyl radical ([rad]OH) and also partially by the formation of other active species such singlet oxygen (1O2). The proposed radical reaction mechanism was also discussed. The degradation of toluene was partial in the dark but almost complete under visible light irradiation by the photo-Fenton catalytic degradation reaction. Bi1-x Bax FeO3 (x?=?0.12) showed the highest photo-Fenton catalytic degradation efficiency with a toluene removal of 98%, total organic carbon (TOC) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction of 85% and 94%, respectively, after 40?min of visible light irradiation.

Effect of pressure on the phase composition of Li(Na)/W/Mn/SiO2 composites and their catalytic activity for oxidative coupling of methane

The phase state of Li/W/Mn/SiO2 and Na/W/Mn/SiO2 composites after exposure to high pressures (2.5 GPa at 500°C) and subsequent exploitation in oxidative coupling of methane (OCM) was studied. Comparison of the catalytic activity of the composites before and after exposure to high pressures indicates that the formation of Li(Na)/W/Mn/SiO2 composites catalytically active for OCM is significantly influenced by high pressures.

Effects of Sodium Tetraborate as an Additive on the Reaction of α-Alumina with Sodium Carbonate

Effects of sodium tetraborate as an additive in the reaction of α-alumina with molten sodium carbonate have been studied mainly in a N2 atmosphere.Addition of sodium tetraborate accelerates the reaction, the α-alumina reacted increasing from 31.7percent to 99.3percent by addition of sodium tetraborate corresponding to the initial B2O3/Na2O molar ratio of only 1/15 under the other same conditions.By means of the Jander equation the activation energy was found to be 53 kcal/mol for the α-Al2O3-Na2CO3-Na2B4O7 system, which was lower by 10 kcal/mol than that for the α-Al2O3-Na2CO3 system.X-Ray diffraction and thermal data were analyzed in relation to the phase equilibrium of the melt.

Partial oxidation of methane to synthesis gas: Novel catalysts based on neodymium–calcium cobaltate–nickelate complex oxides

Novel catalysts based on neodymium–calcium cobaltate–nickelate complex oxides for the partial oxidation of methane to synthesis gas have been synthesized and studied using catalyst precursors with the general formula NdCaCo1–xNixOn (x = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1) prepared by the solid state synthesis method. It has been shown that the synthesized samples form a series of solid solutions with a K2NiF4 structure at x ≤ 0.8 or a rhombically distorted K2NiF4 structure at x = 1. The products of conversion of the resulting precursors in a methane–oxygen mixture at high temperatures have shown high methane conversions and synthesis gas yields. The highest values of these parameters have been achieved in the presence of catalysts synthesized by the reduction of NdCaCo0.4Ni0.6On and NdCaNiOn precursors. The complete replacement of cobalt with nickel has led to an increase in the synthesis gas yield; however, it has been found that the resulting catalyst is prone to carbonization. It has been determined that an optimum nickel to cobalt ratio in the catalyst composition provides the formation of a carbonization-resistant catalyst.

Highly-efficient steam reforming of methanol over copper modified molybdenum carbide

Cu doped molybdenum carbide (Cu-MoxCy) catalysts were prepared by carburization of Cu doped molybdenum oxide (Cu-MoO3) using a temperature-programmed reaction with a 20% CH4-H2 mixture at 700 °C. Phas

FOx News: Towards Methanol-driven Biocatalytic Oxyfunctionalisation Reactions

The novel formate oxidase from Aspergillus oryzae (AoFOx) is a useful catalyst to promote H2O2-dependent oxyfunctionalisation reactions. In this contribution we exploit the substrate promiscuity of AoFOx to fully oxidise methanol and formaldehyde to CO2 and drive peroxygenase-catalysed stereoselective oxyfunctionalisation reactions. The highly atom efficient H2O2 generation system also enabled high catalytic turnover of the peroxygenase production enzyme.

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Enhanced formic acid electro-oxidation on pdir nanoparticles prepared by ethylene glycol-assisted NaBH4 reduction process

The carbon supported PdIr nanoparticles were synthesized by an ethylene glycol-assisted NaBH4 reduction method, and the mass ratio of Pd to Ir was optimized. Then, their performances for formic acid electro-oxidation (FAEO) were investigated. The XRD and

Toluene oxidation catalyzed by NiO/SiO2 and NiO/TiO2/SiO2: Towards development of humidity-resistant catalysts

Toluene oxidation was catalyzed by NiO/SiO2 and NiO/TiO2/SiO2 under dry and highly humid (relative humidity = 70%) conditions at 250 and 350 °C. At 350 °C, both catalysts showed nearly complete removal of toluene and conversion of toluene to CO2 under humid as well as dry conditions. Catalytic activity of the NiO/SiO2 was significantly decreased by the increase in the humidity at 250 °C, whereas that of NiO/TiO2/SiO2 was much less sensitive to the humidity. A facile adsorption of water on NiO/SiO2 due to the hydrophilic nature of SiO2 surface resulted in a pronounced suppression of toluene adsorption on the surface and lower catalytic activity under humid conditions. On the contrary, a higher affinity of TiO2 towards toluene adsorption even under highly humid conditions can allow more humidity-independent catalytic activity of NiO/TiO2/SiO2. We suggest that the modulation of surface structure of supporting materials of nanoparticle catalysts can be useful for fabrication of more humidity-resistant heterogeneous catalysts.

Effects of la doping on structural, optical, electronic properties of Sr2Bi2O5 photocatalyst

Single-phase Sr2Bi2O5 was obtained by calcination of the heterobimetallic complex precursor Sr[Bi(DTPA)]·9H2O (DTPA is diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) at 700 °C for 6 h. The effect of La doping on the crystal structure, surface area, morphology, surface chemical state, and absorption properties of Sr2Bi2O5 samples prepared from Sr[Bi(DTPA)]·9H2O were investigated. No traces of an impurity phase were detected in samples with a lower La content (3 and 5 mol%), while impurity phases such as Sr6Bi2O9 and SrCO3 were observed in Sr2Bi2O5 samples with larger La contents of 8 and 10 mol%. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of Sr2Bi2O5 increased slightly with the content of La. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy revealed clear crystalline planes for both undoped and La-doped Sr2Bi2O5 samples without amorphous phases. Meanwhile, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy indicated that the valence states of constituent metals were Sr2+, Bi3+, and La3+. The solubility limit of La in the Sr2Bi2O5 crystal phase was determined from Raman scattering measurements. La atoms substituted Bi sites when the doping content was low, while both Bi and Sr sites were substituted with La when the content of La was high. The electronic structure of Sr2Bi2O5 could be modified by La doping, resulting in a red shift of the absorption edge with increasing La content. The band-gap narrowing of Sr2Bi2O5 with La-doping was reproduced in energy-band calculations. The photocatalytic activity of Sr2Bi2O5 under visible-light irradiation for the oxidation of isopropanol was enhanced by doping with La.

Effects of metal promotion on the performance of CuZnAl catalysts for alcohol synthesis

A series of CuZnAl catalysts modified with different promoters (Fe, Co, Ru, Zr, Mo, Mg, Mn, and Cr) have been prepared through co-precipitation, characterised by applying a combination of techniques, and tested for carbon monoxide hydrogenation. Cu reducibility in CuZnAl catalysts was affected by the addition of promoters. The ease of Cu reduction in the promoted catalysts leads to more active catalysts for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide and the production of C2+ alcohols, whereas lower catalytic activity was observed over less reducible catalysts. The promotion of CuZnAl catalysts even with small amounts of Cr, Mn, and Fe resulted in a significant modification in the reaction selectivity. The Fe-containing catalyst demonstrated a dramatic increase in carbon monoxide conversion and C2+ alcohol productivity (30 mg g-1cath-1). Choose your alcohol wisely: The ease of Cu reduction in CuZnAl methanol synthesis catalysts promoted with metals leads to more active catalysts for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide and the production of C2+ alcohols. The promotion of CuZnAl catalysts even with small amounts of Cr, Mn, and Fe results in a significant modification in the selectivity patterns.

Effect of active and inert oxide on catalytic partial oxidation (CPO) of methane over supported Ni catalysts

The effects of preparation method, types of carrier and different catalyst and support structures on the CH4 catalytic partial oxidation (CPO) activity of supported Ni catalysts are reviewed with respect to selected results obtained by this research group during the last five years. In particular, different preparation methods and structural effect of Ni supported on La2O3, on CeO2 and on mixed CeO2-La2O3 are discussed. The effects of the peculiarity of an active (redox) and of an inert oxide carrier, influencing the metal dispersion, the metal reducibility and the carbon formation, are considered by comparing the catalytic performance of nickel catalysts supported on CeO2 and on SiO2. Ni supported over a high surface area silica will be compared with a corresponding ceria-doped nickel catalyst. The results of a detailed material characterization attained by several techniques as XPS, XRD, TPR/TPO are described, aiming to elucidate the structure - activity relationship. The reviewing of the different case studies illustrates the importance of the interaction between support and active metals ultimately determining the surface distribution of the active sites and their final catalytic activity.

Rapid alloying of Au–Pd nanospheres by a facile pulsed laser technique: Insights into a molar-dependent electrocatalytic methanol oxidation reaction

Direct methanol fuel cells have attracted extensive research interest because of their relatively high energy density and portability. It is important to rationally design the composition and surface atomic structure by efficient synthesis protocols to boost cell efficiency. In this study, we employed cohesive pulsed laser irradiation and ultrasonochemical techniques to synthesize and tune the molar ratio of an Au–Pd alloy for the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR). The effective implementation of extremely rapid photoinduced reduction and reaction conditions resulted in the formation of well-dispersed and homogenous nanospheres of the Au–Pd alloy with uniform particle size. Moreover, the composition-tuned Au–Pd alloy exhibited an improved electrocatalytic activity, which might be due to its improved electrical conductivity and higher CO tolerance. The alloy achieved relatively high mass and specific activities of 0.50 A/mgPd and 1.36 mA/cmPd2, respectively. Additionally, we studied the effect of the Au–Pd composition on the MOR activity and analyzed the reaction kinetics in depth. This work provides the foundation for implementing a laser-based technique to synthesize Pd-based alloy electrocatalysts for MOR application.

Mesoporous Co3O4 with large specific surface area derived from MCM-48 for catalytic oxidation of toluene

As one of the most promising candidates for the catalytic combustion of volatile organic compounds, crystalline cobalt oxide is one of the most used and cost-effective catalyst. We present here a mesoporous Co3O4 catalyst with large specific surface area of 182.5 ?m2/g derived from MCM-48 with a specific surface area of 1470.9 ?m2/g, giving the T90 (the temperature required for achieving a toluene conversion of 90%) of 229 ?°C and the apparent activation energy (Ea) of 17.53 ?kJ/mol for the oxidation of toluene, both of which are much lower than the Co3O4 catalysts prepared by using SBA-15 and MCM-41 as hard template (T90 ?~ ?260 ?°C, Ea ?~ ?30 ?kJ/mol). Constant complete conversion of toluene over M48-Co3O4 was observed for 60 ?h, suggesting its superior stability for toluene combustion. Characterization results indicated the large specific surface area, higher Co3+/Co2+ ratio as well as abundant surface-active oxygen exposed for easy accessibility of reactant molecules contribute simultaneously to the good catalytic oxidation performance of M48-Co3O4. Particularly, 400 ?°C was viewed to be the optimal calcination temperature for keeping the mesoporous structures of catalyst as much as possible. The reaction intermediates of toluene oxidation over M48-Co3O4 were detected based on both GC-MS and in-situ DRIFTS, demonstrating the formation of the benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, itaconic anhydride and maleic anhydride, acetone, and acetic acid, etc., as the main intermediates.